aflatoxins?

Question

sources, pathways, receptors, cpntrols of aflatoxin poisoning

what are the sources of aflatoxins?

Answer 1

About 45 years ago the USA government was about to ban peanuts from commerce because of their aflatoxin content. The peanut manufacturers got together and did a survey of the alftoxin of foods. It was widely distributed particularly in any foods which had fermentation as a step in the processing. This included beer and cheeses. Rather than ban these popular items, limits on the aflatoxin level in foodstuffs were established.

Answer 2

Rotten peanuts.

Answer 3

Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a fungus, most notably Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic to animals, including humans. After entering the body, aflatoxins are metabolized by the liver to a reactive intermediate, aflatoxin M1, an epoxide. Aflatoxin is frequently misspelled as alfatoxin.

Contamination conditions
Aspergillus fumigatus as seen under the electron microscopeAspergillus is common and widespread in nature and are most often found when crops are exposed to a high humidity environment over a long period of time or are damaged in stressful conditions such as drought, a condition which lowers the barrier to entry.

The native habitat of Aspergillus is in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration and it invades all types of organic substrates whenever and wherever the conditions are favorable for its growth. Favorable conditions include high moisture content (at least 7%) and high temperature.

Crops which are frequently affected include cereals (maize, sorghum, pearl millet, rice, wheat), oilseeds (peanut, soybean, sunflower, cotton), spices (chile peppers, black pepper, coriander, turmeric, ginger), and tree nuts (almond, pistachio, walnut, coconut).

The toxin can also be found in the milk of animals which are fed contaminated feed.

Virtually all sources of commercial peanut butter contain minute quantities of aflatoxin,[citation needed] but it is usually far below the US Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) recommended safe level.

In 1989, Saddam Hussein ordered the government of Iraq to begin production of aflatoxin as an economic biological/chemical weapon. The methods used by Iraqi scientists at the Salman Pak facility were crude; Aspergillus was grown on wet rice and the final product was reportedly highly impure. According to UNSCOM estimations, 2200 L of aflatoxin were produced. Some of this material was reportedly loaded into missiles, though this allegation has never been proven as no aflatoxin was found after the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States. The presumption is that the aflatoxin was destroyed[1].


[edit] Pathology
High-level aflatoxin exposure produces an acute necrosis, cirrhosis, and carcinoma of the liver exhibited by hemorrhage, acute liver damage, edema, alteration in digestion, and absorption and/or metabolism of nutrients.

No animal species is immune to the acute toxic effects of aflatoxins including humans; however, humans have an extraordinarily high tolerance for aflatoxin exposure and rarely succumb to acute aflatoxicosis.

Chronic, subclinical exposure does not lead to as dramatic of symptoms as acute aflatoxicosis. Children, however, are particularly affected by aflatoxin exposure which leads to stunted growth and delayed development. Chronic exposure also leads to a high risk of developing liver cancer, as the metabolite Aflatoxin M1 can intercalate into DNA and alkylate the bases through its epoxide moiety.

Medical research indicates that a regular diet including apiaceous vegetables such as carrots, parsnips, celery and parsley, reduces the carcinogenic effects of aflatoxin[2].


[edit] Detection of aflatoxin in humans
There are two techniques that have been used most often to detect levels of aflatoxin in humans.

The first method is measuring the AFM1-guanine adduct in the urine of subjects. Presence of this breakdown product indicates exposure to aflatoxin in the past 24 hours. However, this technique has a significant flaw in that it only produces a positive result in approximately one-third of positive test subjects. Additionally, due to the half-life of this metabolite, the level of AFM1-guanine measured can vary significantly from day to day, based on diet, and thus is not useful for assessing long term exposure.

Another technique that has been used is a measurement of the AFB1-albumin adduct level in the blood serum. This approach is significantly more accurate, as positive results are generated in 90% of positive test subjects. This test is also useful for measuring long-term exposure, as it remains positive for two to three months.


[edit] Major types of aflatoxins and their metabolites
At least 13 different types of aflatoxin are produced in nature. Aflatoxin B1 is considered the most toxic and is produced by both Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxin G1 and G2 are produced exclusively by A. parasiticus. While the presence of Aspergillus in food products does not always indicate harmful levels of aflatoxin are also present, it does imply a significant risk in consumption of that product.

Aflatoxin B1 & B2 : produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus.
Aflatoxin G1 & G2 : produced by Aspergillus parasiticus.
Aflatoxin M1 : metabolite of Aflatoxin B1 in humans and animals (exposure in ng can come from mother's milk).
Aflatoxicol.

[edit] Interaction of aflatoxin with the Hepatitis B virus
Studies have shown that concurrent infection with the Hepatitis B virus (HBV) during aflatoxin exposure increases the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). As HBV interferes with the ability of hepatocytes to metabolize aflatoxins, an aflatoxin M1-DNA conjugate exists for a longer period of time in the liver, increasing the probability of damage to oncogenes such as p53. This effect is synergistic with the resulting damage far greater than just the sum of aflatoxin or HBV individually. (Williams, 2004)

Decreasing HBV infection levels through vaccination is an effective and simple approach that can be taken to reduce these harmful synergistic effects, thus decreasing the impact of chronic aflatoxin exposure. This strategy may prove to be highly effective – many regions of the world which have high aflatoxin rates, such as western Africa and China, also have high HBV infection rates[3].