Stress
Everyday we are confronted with problems. When we are confronted with a problem we must determine the seriousness of the problem and determine whether or not we have the resources (e.g., emotional resources) necessary in order to cope with problem. If we believe that the problem is serious and we also believe that we do not have the resources necessary to cope with the problem, we will perceive ourselves as being under stress (Cohen et. al., 1995). Stress can be defined as a process in which environmental demands strain an organisms adaptive capacity, resulting in both psychological as well as biological changes that could place a person at risk for illness (Cohen et. al., 1995). Things that cause us stress are called stressors (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). Many events can be thought of as stressors. These include disasters, life crises, life changes, and daily hassles (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). Examples of stressors include: hurricanes, earthquakes, disease, divorce, unemployment, marriage, and traffic jams. Stressors are things that interfere with an important personal goal (Rubin, Paplau & Salovey, 1993). The more important the goal is, the more stress a person will feel when that goal is threatened (Rubin, Paplau & Salovey, 1993). So for example, if it's important to a person to get to class on time, the person will feel stress if he gets caught in traffic. The goal is to get to class on time and the stressor is the traffic jam. The more important it is for the person to be on time, the more stressful the traffic jam will be. So, a person is likely to feel more stress on the day when an exam is given and there is a traffic jam, than he will feel when no exam is given and there is a traffic jam.
Three Theories of Stress. Stress affects everyone, young and old, rich and poor. Life is full of stress. There is work stress, school stress, financial stress, and emotional stress, to name a few. There are three theories or perspectives regarding stress. There is the environmental stress perspective, the psychological stress perspective, and the biological stress perspective. The environmental stress perspective emphasizes assessment of environmental situations or experiences that are objectively related to substantial adaptive demands (Cohen et. al., 1995). The psychological stress perspective emphasizes people's subjective evaluations of their ability to cope with the demands presented to them by certain situations and experiences (Cohen et. al., 1995). Finally, the biological stress perspective emphasizes the activation of certain physiological systems in the body that have been shown time and time again to be regulated by both psychologically and physically demanding conditions (Cohen et. al., 1995).
Stress and Biology. Stress is not necessarily a bad thing. A certain amount of stress is natural. None of us live stress free lives. However, while a certain amount of stress is normal, chronic negative stress may be harmful to our health. Thomas Holmes asserted that any and all change is stressful because it forces individuals to adapt to new, unfamiliar circumstances (Brehm & Kassin, 1993). Holmes acknowledged that some changes require more of an adjustment than other changes (Brehm & Kassin, 1993). Holmes believes that the change resulting from both positive (e.g., marriage, promotion, graduation) and negative (e.g., divorce, unemployment) life events are stressful and may possibly do harm to an individual's health (Brehm & Kassin, 1993). When an individual is faced with stress, his body mobilizes for action in what is called a fight or flight reaction (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). During a fight or flight reaction, the heart rate increases, breathing is accelerated, and the muscles tense up as if in preparation to throw something like a rock (fight) or to run away (flight) (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). For example, when approached by a thief, you can either fight him or you can try to run away from him. When an individual identifies a threat, activity in the sympathetic nervous system rises and the adrenal glands release the hormones epinephrine (or adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the blood stream (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). At the same time, corticosteriod hormones which release fatty acids for energy, are released by the adrenal glands (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). This nervous-system and hormonal activity causes digestion to stop, blood sugar levels to increase, and the heart to pump more blood to the muscles (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). All of these reactions are not unlike the physiological aspects of strong emotions, like fear and anger (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). Spangler and Schieche (1998) examined the biobehavioral organization of infants with various qualities of attachment. Quality of attachment (security & disorganization), emotional expression, and adrenocortical stress reactivity were investigated in 12-month-old infants observed during Ainsworth's Strange Situation. They found that securely attached infants did not show an adrenocortical response. However, interestingly, adrenocortical activation during the Strange Situation was found for the insecure-ambivalent group, but not for the insecure-avoidant group. Pruessner, Hellhammer, and Kirschbaum (1999) studied the effects of burnout and perceived stress on early morning free cortisol levels after awakening. They found that higher levels of perceived stress were related to stronger increases in cortisol levels after awakening after a low dose dexamethasone pretreatment the previous night.
Stress and Illness. If stress persists after the initial fight or flight reaction, the body's reaction enters a second stage (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). During this stage, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system declines and epinephrine secretion is lessened, but corticosteriod secretion continues at above normal levels (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). Finally, if the stress continues and the body is unable to cope, there is likely to be breakdown of bodily resources (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). It is in this stage that there may be a reduction of the levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine in the brain, a state related to depression (Rubin, Paplau, & Salovey, 1993). Stressful life events are related to the risk of infected individuals developing an illness (Cohen et. al., 1998). Traumatic stressful events may trigger either behavioral or biological processes that contribute to the onset of disease. Chronic stress has been associated with increased reports of illness. Long-term exposure to chronic stress may facilitate the development of illness during exposure to stress (Cohen et. al., 1995). Exposure to chronic stress may results in permanent or at the very least long-term psychological, biological, or behavioral responses that alter the progression of illness (Cohen et. al., 1995). Cohen et. al. (1998) found that those who had either a work related or interpersonal chronic stressors (defined as stress lasting one month or longer) had an increased risk of developing colds compared to those who had no chronic stressor. In addition, the longer the stress endured, the more likely a person was to become ill. Cohen, Doyle, and Skoner (1999) found that psychological stress predicted a greater expression of illness and a greater production of interleukin-6 in response to an upper respiratory infection. Finally, Zarski (1984) found no correlation between life experiences and health status. However, life experiences were significantly correlated with somatic symptoms and energy level. Overall health status was highly correlated with somatic symptoms.
Coping Style
In addition to stress, coping style is also related to the development of illness. Coping has been defined as the behavioral and cognitive efforts a person uses to manage the demands of a stressful situation (Chang & Strunk, 1999). There are several methods of coping.
2006-11-01 13:42:32
·
answer #1
·
answered by Anonymous
·
1⤊
1⤋