what is the process to make wine?

Question

I want to know the process for the commercial purpose & also for homemade
and please suggest the preferable sources

Answer 1

Well geez, I could have pasted somebody else's article in here too if you have insomnia.

To answer your question a little more specifically (I'll omit the recombinant DNA) here are couple good places to start:
http://winemaking.jackkeller.net/
http://www.homewinemaking.co.uk/

One of my favorite sources of winemaking supplies (outside of my local home brewing store) is http://morewinemaking.com

Answer 2

Wine making can be divided into four basic phases:-

1) The first phase consists of finding a source of high quality fruit and making sure the grapes are harvested in an optimum condition. Buying small quantities of high quality fruit is not easy, and this is the most difficult wine making phase for home winemakers.

2) The second phase consists of fermenting the grapes into wine. The fermentation is managed by controlling several different fermentation parameters such as temperature, skin contact time, pressing technique, etc.

3) During the third phase, the new wine is clarified and stabilized. Winemakers clarify wine by fining, racking and filtration. Removing excessive protein and potassium bitartrate stabilizes wine. These materials must be removed to prevent them from precipitating out of the wine later.

4) In the fourth phase of wine making, the winemaker ages the wine. Most high quality wines are aged in bulk. Winemakers have an active role throughout the lengthy bulk aging process. Wines are smelled, tasted and measured every few weeks, and any needed adjustments are made promptly.

Except for the first phase, the other three winemaking phases overlap each other. New wine starts to clarify toward the end of the fermentation period. Some tartrates precipitate out during primary fermentation, and the wine becomes more stable. Of course, wine is aging throughout the winemaking process. Each phase makes a specific contribution to wine characteristics, but the first phase has the greatest influence on wine quality..

Answer 3

oh, where to begin.....it depends whether you are starting with the actual grapes or concentrate, first of all. If you're using grapes, red or white? They both get picked, then stems taken off, pressed and juiced. Red wines have skins and seeds left in, called "must", to enhance the color. White is just the juice. Then you add yeast and let them ferment. There are many chemicals and "racking" (filtering from one holder to the next) and filtering. Testing of sugar, specific gravity, brix, etc etc. More filtering and racking. Bottle. It can (should be able to be) drunk after it is bottled, but can be aged for up to five years. (It doesn't get any better after five years.) Basically, a lot of waiting for the sugar to ferment into alcohol. It takes patience and practice. Commercially, it is then labeled, boxed and shipped. Homemade, it is stored or gifted away, and drunk.

If you would like to start making it on your own, as a beginner, may I suggest a kit? Basically with these it's follow direction, add water. But they come out pretty good. They take a lot less time, too.

Answer 4

My dear,
making wine is an art and cannot be explained in few words.
I am Italian and my people has been making wine since the last 2,500 years.
How to produce it?
Easy, if you know it deeply, but if you want a short answer that is it:
wait the grape to be properly ripe
harvest and crush, separating the wooden parts from the rest of the crushing
pour what you have obtain into an open wooden barrel
wait until it starts boiling, then whaen it stops boiling pour it into a closed barrel for at list a couple of month than filter it.
Now you should have produced your wine.....goodluck!
Ciao

Answer 5

Here is a simple recipe for homemade red wine and it is pretty good, too. Great for just starting out.
Large Welch's frozen grape juice
4 1/2 cups sugar
1 package dry yeast
Thaw welch's, add sugar and pour into gallon glass jug. Add yeast and water to make jug almost full. Put a balloon over the top tightly. Let sit 21 to 30 days (the balloon will start to blow up)
Pour into bottles or jars. Will be clear in 3 or 4 days and ready to drink. Good luck.

Answer 6

make grape juice with ur hand and pour it into a tight bottle.keep it under for 2days and it will become wine automatically

Answer 7

i tihnk the juice is made from grapes?

Answer 8

TAILORING WINE YEAST FOR THE 3RD MILLENIUM: PART 3

March 2005

novel approaches to the ancient art of winemaking

Isak S. Pretorius
Institute for Wine Biotechnology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, ZA-7600, South Africa

Active dried wine yeast starter cultures continued...

3.2 Genetic constitution of wine yeasts

The yeast nucleus is a round-lobate organelle of about 1.5 µm diameter and the nucleoplasm is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane containing pores 20-100 nm in diameter. The nuclear membranes are occasionally contiguous with the endoplasmic reticulum and, unlike most eukaryotic cells, the yeast nuclear membrane is not dismantled during mitosis. The nucleoplasm contains chromatin that consists of condensed basic nucleoprotein material, comprising double-helical DNA-histone complexes, which are organized in chromosomes.

Most laboratory-bred strains of S. cerevisiae are either haploid or diploid, whereas industrial wine yeast strains are predominantly diploid or aneuploid and occasionally polyploid. In general, S. cerevisiae is considered as having a relatively small genome, a large number of chromosomes, little repetitive DNA and few introns. Besides the chromosomal DNA, several non-Mendelian genetic elements are known to exist in the nucleus (e.g., 35 to 55 copies of Ty retrotransposons per haploid genome and 50 to 100 copies of the 6.3-kb 2mm plasmid DNA), mitochondria (75-kb mtDNA) and cytoplasm (e.g., killer viral-like particles containing dsRNA genomes, and prion-like elements such as [Psi], Eta] and [URE2]). However, with the exception of the mtDNA, there seems to be no effect on the quality of wine produced by S. cerevisiae strains containing any of these non-chromosomal genetic elements.

Haploid strains contain approximately 12 to 13 megabases (mb) of nuclear DNA, distributed along 16 linear chromosomes. Each chromosome is a single DNA molecule approximately 200 to 2200 kb long. The genome of a laboratory strain of S. cerevisiae has been completely sequenced and found to contain roughly 6000 protein-encoding genes, 275 tRNA genes, 140 rRNA genes and 20 genes encoding small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Almost 70% of the more than 12 million bp consists of open reading frames (ORFs), indicating that there is a protein-encoding gene about every 2 kb. Therefore, the S. cerevisiae genome, which is relatively rich in guanine and cytosine content (%G+C of 39-41) is much more compact even when compared with the genomes of other yeasts and fungi. Of its 6000 protein-encoding genes, only 4% are interrupted by non-coding intervening sequences.

Chromosomal DNA of S. cerevisiae contains relatively few repeated sequences and, with the exception of the tRNA and rRNA genes, most genes appear to be present as single copies in the haploid genome. Less than half the genes are currently classified as 'functionally characterized'. However, technology has been developed to provide a direct link between the genome sequence and the transcriptome (a complete set of mRNA that yeast is capable of synthesizing). The genomic sequence has been used to design and synthesize high-density oligonucleotide arrays for monitoring the expression levels of nearly all genes of yeast cells grown under a large number of different cultural conditions. Furthermore, several laboratories are systematically screening disrupted genes in deletion (knock-out) mutants to functionally analyze the yeast genome. The deciphering of the function of the 6000 genes will make the complete proteome (the full set of proteins that a yeast is capable of synthesizing) accessible. This information about the genome, transcriptome and proteome of a laboratory strain of S. cerevisiae can then be gradually expanded to the much more complex genomes of industrial wine yeast strains.

3.3 Genetic techniques for the analysis and development of wine yeasts strains

S. cerevisiae can be genetically manipulated in many ways. Some techniques alter limited regions of the genome; others are used to recombine or rearrange the entire genome. Techniques having the greatest potential in genetic programming of wine yeast strains are: clonal selection of variants, mutation and selection, hybridization, rare-mating, spheroplast fusion as well as gene cloning and transformation (Table 3). The combined use of classical genetic techniques and recombinant DNA methods have dramatically increased the genetic diversity that can be introduced into yeast cells.

Selection of variants is a simple direct means of strain development that depends on the genetic variation normally present in all wine yeast strains. Genetic heterogeneity in wine yeast strains is due mainly to mitotic recombination during vegetative growth and spontaneous mutation. Successful isolation of variants depends on the frequency at which they occur and the availability of selection procedures to isolate strains containing the improved characteristic. Dramatic improvements in most characteristics cannot be expected; nevertheless intra-strain selection has been used for decades to improve wine yeast strains.

Table 3. Some methods employed in genetic research and development of wine yeasts.

Method


Comments

Hybridization


Cannot generally be used directly, but method is not entirely obsolete. Has been used to study the genetic control of flocculation, sugar uptake and flavor production. Cross-breeding and hybridization of spore-derived clones of S. cerevisiae have also been accomplished.

Mutation and selection


For example, to induce auxotrophic and derepressed mutants for efficient sugar fermentation and ethanol tolerance.

Rare mating


Mixing of non-mating strains at high cell density (ca. 108 cells/ml) results in a few true hybrids with fused nuclei. Cytoduction (introduction of cytoplasmic elements without nuclear fusion) can also be used to impart killer activity (using karyogamy deficient, Kar-, mutants).

Spheroplast fusion


Spheroplasts from yeast strains of one species, the same genus, or different genera can be fused to produce intraspecific, interspecific or intergeneric fusants, respectively. The possibility exists to introduce novel characteristics into wine yeast strains which are incapable of mating.

Single-chromosome transfer


Transfer of whole chromosomes from wine trains (using the Kar- mutation) into genetically defined strains of S. cerevisiae..

Transformation


Introduction of genes from other yeasts and other organisms.


The average spontaneous mutation frequency in S. cerevisiae at any particular locus is approximately 10-6 per generation. The use of mutagens greatly increases the frequency of mutations in a wine yeast population. Mutation and selection appear to be a rational approach to strain development when a large number of performance parameters are to be kept constant while only one is to be changed. However, mutation of wine yeasts can lead to improvement of certain traits with the simultaneous debilitation of other characteristics. Although mutations are probably induced with the same frequency in haploids, diploids or polyploids, they are not as easily detected in diploid and polyploid cells because of the presence of non-mutated alleles. Only if the mutation is dominant is a phenotypic effect detected without the need for additional alterations. Therefore, haploid strains of wine yeasts are preferred, though not essential, when inducing mutations. Successful mutation breeding is usually associated with mutations in meiotic segregants, where the two mating parents of a genetically stable hybrid provide a good basis for the introduction of recessive mutations. Mutagenesis has the potential to disrupt or eliminate undesirable characteristics and to enhance favorable properties of wine yeasts. Though the use of mutagens for directed strain development is limited, the method could be applied to isolate new variants of wine yeast strains prior to further genetic manipulation.

Intra-species hybridization involves the mating of haploids of opposite mating-types to yield a heterozygous diploid. Recombinant progeny are recovered by sporulating the diploid, recovering individual haploid ascospores and repeating the mating/sporulation cycle as required. Haploid strains from different parental diploids possessing different genotypes can be mated to form a diploid strain with properties different from that of either parental strain. Thus, theoretically speaking, crossbreeding can permit the selection of desirable characteristics and the elimination of undesirable ones. Unfortunately many wine yeasts are homothallic and the use of hybridization techniques for development of wine yeast strains has proved difficult. This problem can be circumvented, however, by direct spore-cell mating, where four homothallic ascospores from the same ascus are placed into direct contact with heterothallic haploid cells using a micromanipulator. Mating takes place between compatible ascospores and cells. Elimination or inclusion of a specific property can thus be achieved relatively quickly by hybridization, provided that it has a simple genetic basis, for example one or two genes. However, many desirable wine yeast characteristics are specified by several genes or are the result of several gene systems interacting with one another.

Wine yeast strains that fail to express a mating-type can be force-mated (rare-mating) with haploid MATa and MATa strains. Typically, a large number of cells of the parental strains are mixed and a strong positive selection procedure is applied to obtain the rare hybrids formed. For instance, industrial strains with a defective form or lack of mtDNA (respiratory-deficient mutants) can be force-mated with auxotrophic haploid strains having normal respiratory characteristics. Mixing of these non-mating strains at high cell density will generate only a few respiratory-sufficient prototrophs. These true hybrids with fused nuclei can then be induced to sporulate for further genetic analysis and crossbreeding. Rare-mating is also used to introduce cytoplasmic genetic elements into wine yeasts without the transfer of nuclear genes from the non-wine yeast parent. This method of strain development is termed cytoduction. Cytoductants (or heteroplasmons) receive cytoplasmic contributions from both parents but retain the nuclear integrity of only one. Cytoduction requires a haploid mating strain carrying the kar1 mutation; that is, a mutation that impedes karyogamy (nuclear fusion) after mating.

This more specific form of strain construction can, for example, be used to introduce the dsRNA determinants for the K2 zymocin and associated immunity into a particular wine yeast. Cytoduction can also be used to substitute the mitochondrial genome of a wine yeast or to introduce a plasmid encoding desirable genetic characteristics into specific wine yeast strains. Mating between strains, one of which carries the kar1 allele, occasionally generates progeny that contain the nuclear genotype of one parent together with an additional chromosome from the other parent. The donation of a single chromosome from an industrial strain to a haploid kar1 recipient is termed single-chromosome transfer, and is used to examine individual chromosomes of industrial yeast strains in detail.

Spheroplast fusion is a direct, asexual technique that can be used in crossbreeding as a supplement to mating. Like rare-mating, spheroplast fusion can be used to produce either hybrids or cytoductants. Both these procedures overcome the requirement for opposite mating types to be crossed, thereby extending the number of crosses that can be done. Cell walls of yeasts can be removed by lytic enzymes in the presence of an osmotic stabilizer to prevent osmolysis of the resulting spheroplasts. Spheroplasts from the different parental strains are mixed in the presence of a fusion agent, polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions, and then allowed to regenerate their cell walls in an osmotically stabilized, selective agar medium. Spheroplast fusion of non-sporulating industrial yeast strains serves to remove the natural barriers to hybridization. The desirable (and undesirable) characteristics of both parental strains will recombine in the offspring. Cells of different levels of ploidy can be fused. For instance, a diploid wine yeast strain can be fused to a haploid strain to generate triploid strains. Alternatively, two diploid wine yeasts with complementing desirable characteristics can be fused to generate a tetraploid wine yeast strain containing all of the genetic backgrounds of the two parental wine yeasts.

While clonal selection, mutagenesis, hybridization, rare-mating and spheroplast fusion are valuable to strain development programmes, these methods lack the specificity required to modify wine yeasts in a well-controlled manner. It may not be possible, for example, to precisely define the change required, and a new strain may bring an improvement in some aspects, while compromizing other desired characteristics. Yeast geneticists must be able to alter the characteristics of wine yeasts in specific ways: an existing property must be modified, or a new one introduced without adversely affecting other desirable properties. Molecular-genetic techniques capable of this are now available. Gene cloning and recombinant DNA technology offer exciting prospects for improving wine yeasts.

Gene cloning and transformation is analogous to cutting a printed page in half, inserting a new paragraph in the middle and repeatedly photocopying the altered version to reproduce the new material along with the old. Genetic transformation is the change of the genetic set-up of a yeast cell by the introduction of purified DNA. By using such procedures it should be possible to construct new wine yeast strains differing from the original only in single specific characteristics. In principle, there are five major steps in the cloning of a gene: (i) identifying the target gene and obtaining the DNA fragment [obtained from a genomic or cDNA library or by amplification using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)] to be cloned (passenger DNA) by enzymatic fragmentation of the donor DNA using restriction endonucleases; (ii) identifying and linearizing a suitable plasmid vector; (iii) joining the passenger DNA fragments to the linearized vector DNA, thereby generating recombinant DNA molecules, designated a gene library; (iv) inserting the recombinant DNA molecules into host cells by transformation; (v) screening transformed cells and selecting those cells containing the target gene.

A number of options are available at each of these stages and decisions depend on a number of factors, not the least of which is the extent of information available about the target gene product and the gene itself. Free DNA molecules, however, are not taken up by normal yeast cells; their entry requires the generation of a permeable spheroplast. DNA is added in the presence of calcium ions and polyethylene glycol that makes the plasma membrane permeable, encouraging the passage of DNA. The methods involving spheroplasts yield high transformation efficiencies; however, transformation is somewhat laborious and is associated with a high frequency of cell fusion. Also, different strains vary considerably in their transformation competence, that seems to be inherited in a polygenic manner. A simpler method has been developed using intact yeast cells and alkali cations, especially lithium acetate (or lithium sulfate) and polyethylene glycol to induce DNA uptake. Currently, the lithium method seems to be the most commonly used, despite its disadvantage of giving a slightly lower transformation efficiency than the spheroplast method. Yeast cells can also be transformed by electroporation and biolistic bombardment.

To become a heritable component of the yeast cell, the transforming DNA normally suffers one of two fates: either it is maintained as a self-replicating plasmid, physically separated from the endogenous yeast chromosomes, or it must integrate into a chromosome and thus be maintained by the functions of the chromosome. A wide range of E. coli-S. cerevisiae shuttle vectors (YIp, YEp, YRp, YCp, YTp, YLp/YAC, YXp, etc.) containing bacterial and yeast marker genes and origin of replication sequences were developed. The introduction of recombinant plasmids into a wine yeast strain requires either that the strain be made auxotrophic before transformation or that the plasmid used for transformation carry a marker that is selectable against a wild-type diploid or polyploid background. Positive selectable markers include: (i)the kanamycin-resistance gene; (ii) the gene encoding resistance to the antibiotic geneticin G418; (iii) the copper-resistance (CUP1) gene; (iv) hygromycin B-resistance; (v) resistance to chloramphenicol; (vi) methotrexate-resistance; (vii) resistance to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl (SMR1 gene); (viii) resistance to methylglyoxal; (ix) the L-canavanine-resistance (CAN1) gene; and (x) the ability to utilize melibiose. Recombinant plasmids with positive selectable markers, containing a particular target gene, are usually either integrated into a chromosome or maintained as a stable minichromosome in industrial yeast strains. Such minichromosomes should preferably be stripped of all non-relevant bacterial DNA sequences before transformation into industrial yeast strains.

In addition to the introduction of specific genes into wine yeasts, recombinant DNA approaches offer wider applicability. Some of the applications provided by recombinant-DNA techniques include: (i) amplification of gene expression by maintaining a gene on a multi-copy plasmid, integration of a gene at multiple sites within chromosomal DNA or splicing a structural gene to a highly efficient promoter sequence; (ii) releasing enzyme synthesis from a particular metabolic control or subjecting it to a new one; (iii) in-frame splicing of a structural gene to a secretion signal to engineer secretion of a particular gene product into the culture medium; (iv) developing gene products with modified characteristics by site directed mutagenesis; (v) eliminating specific undesirable strain characteristics by gene disruption; (vi) incorporation of genetic information from diverse organisms such as fungi, bacteria, animals and plants.

The genetic techniques of mutation, hybridization, cytoduction and transformation discussed in this section will most likely be used in combination for commercial wine yeast improvement. Procedures centered around DNA transformation have revolutionized strategies for strain modification, but it remains difficult to clone unidentified genes. Thus, mutation and selection will persist as an integral part of many breeding programmes. Furthermore, although recombinant DNA methods are the most precise way of introducing novel traits encoded by single genes into commercial wine yeast strains, hybridization remains the most effective method for improving and combining traits under polygenic control.