WWI Definition help?

Question

17.Identify and explain the significance of each of the following:
Trench warfare


Totalitarian


War reparations First Balkan War, 1912


Algeciras conference of 1904



Lusitania


Congress of Berlin, 1878


Western front


Principle of natural self-determination


Anglo-French Entente of 1904


Third Balkan War, 1914


Duma



18.Explain what role each of the following played in the Russian Revolution.

Tsar Nicholas II

Petrograd bread riots [1917]


Alexander Kerensky


Constituent Assembly


Petrograd Soviet


Congress of the Soviets


Vladimir Lenin


White opposition

Leo Trotsky


Kiev mutiny[1918]


Army Order No.1


Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Answer 1

Trench warfare is a form of war in which both opposing armies have static lines of defense. Trench warfare arose when there was a revolution in firepower without similar advances in mobility and communications. Periods of trench warfare occurred during the American Civil War (1861–65) and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, and reached peak brutality and bloodshed on the Western Front in the First World War.

Very early in the war the British defensive doctrine suggested a main trench system of three parallel lines, interconnected by communications trenches. The point at which a communications trench intersected the front trench was of critical importance, and it was usually heavily fortified. The front trench was lightly garrisoned and typically only occupied in force during "stand to" at dawn and dusk. Between 70 and 100 yards behind the front trench was located the support (or "travel") trench, to which the garrison would retreat when the front trench was bombarded. Between 300 and 500 yards further to the rear was located the third reserve trench, where the reserve troops could amass for a counter-attack if the front trenches were captured. This defensive layout was soon rendered obsolete as the power of the artillery grew; however, in certain sectors of the front, the support trench was maintained as a decoy to attract the enemy bombardment away from the front and reserve lines. Fires were lit in the support line to make it appear inhabited, and any damage due to shellfire was immediately repaired.


Aerial view of opposing trench lines between Loos and Hulluch, July 1917. German trenches at the right and bottom, British at the top-left.Temporary trenches were also built. When a major attack was planned, assembly trenches would be dug near the front trench. These were used to provide a sheltered place for the waves of attacking troops who would follow the first waves leaving from the front trench. "Saps" were temporary, unmanned, often dead-end utility trenches dug out into no-man's land. They fulfilled a variety of purposes, such as connecting the front trench to a listening post close to the enemy wire or providing an advance "jumping-off" line for a surprise attack.

When one side's front line bulged towards the opposition, a "salient" was formed. The concave trench line facing the salient was called a "re-entrant". Large salients were perilous for their occupants because they could be assailed from three sides.

Behind the front system of trenches there were usually at least two more partially prepared trench systems, kilometres to the rear, ready to be occupied in the event of a retreat. The Germans often prepared multiple redundant trench systems; in 1916 their Somme front featured two complete trench systems, one kilometre apart, with a third partially completed system a further kilometre behind. This duplication made a decisive breakthrough virtually impossible. In the event that a section of the first trench system was captured, a "switch" trench would be dug to connect the second trench system to the still-held section of the first.

The Germans made something of a science out of designing and constructing defensive works. They used reinforced concrete to construct deep, shell-proof, ventilated dugouts, as well as strategic strongpoints. They were more willing than their opponents to make a strategic withdrawal to a superior prepared defensive position. They were also the first to apply the concept of "defence in depth", where the front-line zone was hundreds of yards deep and contained a series of redoubts rather than a continuous trench. Each redoubt could provide supporting fire to its neighbours, and while the attackers had freedom of movement between the redoubts, they would be subjected to withering enfilade fire. The British eventually adopted a similar approach, but it was incompletely implemented when the Germans launched the 1918 "Spring Offensive" and proved disastrously ineffective.


[edit] Trench construction

Trench construction diagram from a 1914 British infantry manualTrenches were never straight but were dug in a square-toothed pattern that broke the line into bays connected by traverses. This meant that a soldier could never see more than 10 metres or so along the trench. Consequently, the entire trench could not be enfiladed if the enemy gained access at one point or if a bomb or shell landed in the trench; the fragmentation (often incorrectly called shrapnel) could not travel far. The side of the trench facing the enemy was called the parapet and had a fire step. The rear of the trench was called the parados. The parados protected the soldier's back from fragmentation from shells falling behind the trench. If the enemy captured the trench, then the parados would become their "parapet". The sides of the trench were revetted with sandbags, wooden frames and wire mesh. The floor of the trench was usually covered by wooden duckboards.

Dugouts of varying degrees of luxury would be built in the rear of the support trench. British dugouts were usually 8 to 16 feet deep, whereas German dugouts were typically much deeper, usually a minimum of 12 feet deep and sometimes dug 3 stories down, with concrete staircases to reach the upper levels. "Luxury" is a relative term when prolonged rain has reduced the floor and walls to mud.


Australian light horseman using a periscope rifle, Gallipoli 1915To allow a soldier to see out of the trench without exposing his head, a loophole would be built into the parapet. A loophole might simply be a gap in the sandbags, or it might be fitted with a steel plate. German snipers used armour-piercing bullets that allowed them to penetrate loopholes

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to·tal·i·tar·i·an /toʊˌtælɪˈtɛəriən/ Pronunciation Key - Show Spelled Pronunciation[toh-tal-i-tair-ee-uhn] Pronunciation Key - Show IPA Pronunciation
–adjective 1. of or pertaining to a centralized government that does not tolerate parties of differing opinion and that exercises dictatorial control over many aspects of life.
2. exercising control over the freedom, will, or thought of others; authoritarian; autocratic
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Bismarck's Greater Germany

Bismarck, first Prime Minister of Prussia and then Chancellor of the German Empire (once he had assembled it), set about the construction of Germany through high politics judiciously assisted by war against Austria and France.

Appointed Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Prussia by Kaiser Wilhelm I in 1862, Bismarck was consumed with a desire to achieve the creation of a German Empire out of the collection of smaller German states largely led by Austria's influence (another German-speaking nation).

His first step was to oust Austria as the prime influence among these German states. He achieved this by engineering war with Austria in 1866 over disputed territory in the duchy of Holstein (much against the wishes of his own Kaiser).

The resulting war lasted just seven weeks - hence its common title 'The Seven Weeks War' - and ended with the complete dominance of the supremely efficient Prussian military.

In a peace mediated by the French Emperor, Napoleon III, Bismarck extracted from Austria not only Schleswig and Holstein, but also Hanover, Hesse, Nassau and Frankfurt, creating the North German Federation. As importantly, Bismarck had successfully displaced Austria in the spheres of influence over the many small German states.

Having assembled a united assembly in the north Bismarck determined to achieve the same in the south - and so unite all of the German states under the Prussian banner.

How to achieve this? Bismarck resolved that war with the French, a common enemy, would attain his aims.

First, he needed to engineer a credible reason for war. Thus, in 1870, Bismarck attempted to place a Hohenzollern prince on the throne in Spain. Napoleon III, fearful of the prospect of theoretical war on two fronts - for the Hohenzollern prince was a relative of Kaiser Wilhelm I - objected.

Bismarck turned up the diplomatic heat by releasing, on 14 July 1870, a doctored version of a telegram ostensibly from the Kaiser to Bismarck himself, called the Ems Telegram. The effect of the telegram was to simultaneously insult both France and Prussia over their inability to resolve the dispute over the Spanish throne.

Napoleon III, facing civil revolt at home over quite unrelated matters, and receiving encouraging noises from his military commanders, responded by declaring war against Prussia five days later, on 19 July 1870.

Once again, as was the case against Austria, the Prussian military machine demolished the French forces. Napoleon III, who personally led his forces at the lost Battle of Sedan, surrendered and was deposed in the civil war that boiled over in France, resulting in the Third French Republic.

Meantime the Prussian forces laid siege to Paris between September 1870 and January 1871, starving the city into surrender.

The consequences of the war were numerous. Aside from the usual territorial gains - France ceded both Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia and was forced to pay swingeing reparations (equivalent to around $1 billion today) - the southern German states agreed to an alliance with their northern counterparts, resulting in the creation of Bismarck's cherished German Empire.

Bismarck's Need for Alliances

Bismarck's creation of a unified Germany was of direct relevance to the outbreak of war some 43 years later, since it resulted in the assembly of the key alliances that later came into play.

For, having achieved his life's aim, Bismarck's expansionary plans were at an end. He had secured what he wanted, and his chief desire now was to maintain its stability. He therefore set about building European alliances aimed at protecting Germany from potentially threatening quarters.

He was acutely aware that the French were itching to revenge their defeat at the earliest opportunity - and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia would prove to be a lasting sore. Indeed, the French plan for war in 1914, Plan XVII, was largely based around the recapture of Alsace and Lorraine in the shortest possible time - with disastrous consequences.

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OUTBREAK OF THE WAR
World War I began in the Balkans, the site of many small wars. In the early 1900's, the Balkan states fought the Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War (1912-1913) and one another in the Second Balkan War (1913). The major European powers stayed out of both wars. But they did not escape the third Balkan crisis.
The assassination of Francis Ferdinand gave Austria-Hungary an excuse to crush Serbia, its long-time enemy in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary first gained Germany's promise of support for any action it took against Serbia. It then sent a list of humiliating demands to Serbia on July 23. Serbia accepted most of the demands and offered to have the rest settled by an international conference. However, Austria-Hungary rejected the offer and declared war on Serbia on July 28. It expected a quick victory.

…AND THE CONFLICT SPREAD
Within weeks of the Archduke's assassination, the chief European powers were drawn into World War I. A few attempts were made to prevent the war. Great Britain proposed an international conference to end the crisis. But Germany rejected the idea, claiming that the dispute involved only Austria-Hungary and Serbia. However, Germany tried to stop the war from spreading.

Russia had backed out before in support of its ally Serbia. In 1908, Austria-Hungary had angered Serbia by taking over Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia had stepped aside. In 1914, Russia vowed to stand behind Serbia. Russia first gained a promise of support from France. The Czar then approved plans to mobilize along Russia's border with Austria-Hungary. But Russia's military leaders persuaded the Czar to mobilize along the German border, too. On July 30, 1914, Russia announced it would mobilize fully.

Germany declared war on Russia on Aug. 1, 1914, in response to Russia's mobilization. Two days later, Germany declared war on France. The German army swept into Belgium on its way to France. The invasion of neutral Belgium caused Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4. However, few areas of the world had remained neutral till the end of the war in Nov 1918.

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Answer 2

Frankfurt is a dynamic and international financial and deal fair city with imposing skyline in Germany and is one of many places that you might want to see, at least one time and that place hotelbye will help you. Frankfurt is really a town in the center of Germany and Europe and is a city that could offer many facets and contrasting variety. In the center of Frankfurt's Old Town you may find a spot well suitable, the Römerberg.The Römerberg is an irregularly designed square with the Justice Fountain at its center. Not merely could it be Frankfurt's many picturesque public square, oahu is the city's busiest pedestrian zone, house to varied tourist attractions from its several Kulturschirn (a form of open-fronted store after common through the entire previous town) to the Römer, a complicated of 11 beautiful old structures from the 15th to 18th generations including the Old Town Hall with its Imperial Hall, when the world of wonderful banquets. Different notable houses range from the New Town Hall, the 14th-century Gothic Church of St. Leonhard, and St. Nicholas Church, notable because of its carillon.

Answer 3

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