what are the functions and elements of a political system?

Question

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Answer 1

Political Systems
Throughout history, many kinds of political systems developed in different areas of the world depending on the needs of the people, and the economic resources available.

In Europe, as well as in parts of China, India, Africa, and South America, a system known as monarchy developed. Beginning in ancient Greece, the practice of democracy has continued into the 21st century. In both Europe and Japan, feudalism had developed by the 1100s.

By the 1500s, absolutism, and divine right monarchy, had emerged, especially in Europe. The Enlightenment, a rejection of absolutism, forced political changes in Europe, North America and Western Asia. The 1850s saw the rapid spread of an anti-capitalist economic & political system called communism.

Related Political Systems

monarchy a political system in which the government is under the control of one powerful leader.
oligarchy a political system in which the government is under the control of the merchant class.
theocracy a political system in which the government is under the control of a religious organization or its officials.
aristocracy a political system in which the government is under the control of wealthy landowners.
democracy a political system in which the government is under the control of the citizens themselves, or elected representatives chosen from eligible citizens.

Monarchy and the Divine Right to rule
In most of the oldest river valley civilizations, the strongest military man became king. A political system in which government is controlled by a king or queen is called a monarchy. Some kings were also the chief priest in their city. This dual role was not uncommon, and served to place the king on a much higher social level than his subjects, thus making it easier for him to govern them

Some kings took the religious affiliation even further, declaring they had the right to rule because God had chosen them to do so. Claiming to rule by divine right made kings appear very powerful, and closely connected to the patron god of the city.

Examples of Early Monarchy
Mesopotamia
In Sumer and Babylon, the king was often the monarch and the high priest. The position of these so-called priest-kings was relatively unstable. If the god(s) didn't provide for welfare of the citizens, the people often held the king responsible, and deposed him.

Egypt
In the land of the Nile, the all-powerful monarch was called pharaoh. The people thought pharaoh was the physical incarnation of the god Horus here on earth. As both a man and a god, pharaoh blended and used both politics and religion to govern his lands.



Quick Comparison


Mesopotamia
Egypt

Political system hereditary monarchy divine monarchy
Religion polytheistic polytheistic

Social structure distinct social classes many social classes
Women's roles very few rights could own property and enter business


Kingship in the Ancient World
China
Chinese emperors justified their actions by claiming the Mandate of Heaven, or divine right of rule. The Mandate of Heaven was later used to explain the Dynastic Cycle. A dynasty would remain in power only as long as it was providing good government. When a dynasty went into decline, and began to abuse its power, it was said to lose the Mandate of Heaven, or the favor of the gods. A strong leader would usually emerge to claim the Mandate, and establish a new dynasty. The dynastic cycle would then begin again.


India
The Indus Valley had long been divided into rival kingdoms. In 321 BCE., Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty. The Mauryan Empire had a strong central government and an proficient bureaucracy, a system of operating government through departments run by officials.
Roman Empire
By 270 BCE, Rome controlled all of Italy. They also conquered most of southern Europe and parts of Asia Minor. This expansion led to a civil war and the end of the Republic when Julius Caesar took power in 48 BCE. After his murder, Caesar's grandnephew, Augustus, became Emperor. Under Augustus, a 200 year long peace began, which is called the Pax Romana. The Pax Romana became a time of cultural and intellectual achievements for Rome, and saw the return of the monarchy to Rome.

Modern European Monarchy
During the Middle Ages, kings and strong nobles battled with the Roman Catholic Church for supreme power. Beginning in England an France, kings began to strengthen their central power, and restrict the Church.

The struggle grew especially fierce over lay investiture, or the power to name Bishops and other church officials within the country. This fighting later resulted in the foundation of nation-states, under many different political systems.

In Spain, England, France, Austria, Prussia and Russia, absolute monarchies were established. Each had a different level of success. Absolute monarchies also existed in Mughal India and Ottoman Asia Minor & Africa.


European Feudalism
About 500 CE, much of western Europe was left without a strong centralized government due to the breakdown of the Roman Empire. With little organized resistance, Germanic invaders raided western European cities and monasteries. Because kings were often too weak to repel the invaders, many city dwellers moved into the countryside in hopes of greater safety. As a result of the invasions, and a weak central government, a new social and political system known as feudalism developed. Strong local lords formed a strict code of behavior and allegiances which became the foundation of feudal life.
For example, the king controlled huge tracts of land. He would give his support and a large piece of land, called a fief, to a powerful lord in return for loyalty and military support. This meant the lord was now a vassal of the king. The Lord would then divide up that land among his supporters, usually less powerful lords, obtaining vassals of his own. The Lesser Lords would do the same, dividing up the increasingly smaller land holdings to their knights. Finally, the knights would be left in direct control of the land and the peasants or townsfolk who lived there. The peasants were expected to grow food, tend the land, and provide military support to the feudal lords. Under European feudalism, there was very little opportunity for social advancement.



The Feudal Economy
Feudal lords and knights lived in a manor house on a large estate. The economy that grew up around the lord's home is known as manorialism. Under this system, everyone had a well-defined place in the social structure.

Many nobles became knights, mounted warriors, who lived according to a code of conduct called chivalry. They were expected to be honest, brave, and loyal to their word. Most peasants were serfs, meaning they could not leave their lord's lands without permission. The serfs farmed and provided manual and military labor for the lord, and in return, he protected them and gave them a few acres to farm for themselves.

Feudal Japan
Japan's feudal period lasted from the 12th century until the 19th century. During this period, society was divided in different classes. At the top, was the Emperor, although he had little real power. Japan was ruled by the Shogun, who was a military leader with near absolute control. The most successful was the Tokugawa Shogunate, which ruled Japan from 1603 until 1868.

In Japan, the real political and military power was in the hands of the shogun. Much like in Europe, the shogun distributed lands to his loyal vassals, who were called daimyo. The daimyo then granted lands to their warriors, the samurai. Japanese warriors lived according to a code of conduct known as bushido, which was even stricter than that in Europe. A disgraced samurai was expected to perform seppuku (commit suicide) in order to maintain his family's honor.

Comparison of Feudalism in Europe and Japan

Europe
Japan

Nobility king, lord, lesser lord emperor, shogun, daimyo
Warriors knights samurai
Code of conduct chivalry bushido
Evolution Both practices developed in response to the need for security and stability
everyone had well-defined social roles
helped preserve law and order


The European Model
Throughout the 1500s and 1600s, absolutism, when kings or queens have complete control over government and the lives of their subjects, was the most widespread political system in use in Europe and parts of Asia.

In the 1500s, Spain emerged as the first modern European power. Spain's king, Charles V, was involved in almost constant warfare. His son, Philip II, expanded Spanish influence, strengthened the Catholic Church, and, believing he ruled by divine right, made his own power absolute. Under him, Spain became the most powerful state in Europe.

Religious wars between Catholics and Protestants tore France apart in the late 1500s. In the 1640s, under Louis XIV, who assumed absolute power with the help of Cardinal Richelieu, France became the most powerful state in Europe. Louis, known as "The Sun King," ruled for 72 years. His claim to power was furthered by Jacques Bousset, who argued that Louis was god's representative here on earth.

In Russia, Peter the Great used autocratic methods to modernize Russia, pushing through social and economic reforms and importing western technology. Later, Catherine the Great achieved the Russian dream of a warm-water port on the Black Sea by waging war against the Ottoman Empire.

The Response to Absolutism in England

Beginning in 1603 in England, the Stuart kings James I and Charles I, clashed with Parliament over royal authority, money, foreign policy, and religion. Civil war broke out in 1642 when Charles I tried to arrest the radical leaders of the House of Commons. In the end, a victorious Parliament executed Charles, abolished the monarchy, and created a republic headed by Oliver Cromwell.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688, which established the English Bill of Rights, ensured the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy. Under the Bill of Rights, England became a constitutional monarchy. The king or queen would now be only a symbol for the country.

The Islamic World
There are also several examples of absolute monarchy in the Muslim world. In Islamic history, the Ottoman sultan Suleiman is considered to be the perfect ruler. He is said to have had all of the most important qualities of an Islamic ruler, especially knowledge of justice. In addition, he is viewed by many as a law giver, a great soldier, and a magnificent poet.

A contemporary of Suleiman, Akbar the Great, ascended the throne in 1556, at the age of thirteen. The third Mughal emperor of India, Akbar won the support of Hindus and Muslims. His greatest accomplishment was the institution of an efficient bureaucracy that helped to run the empire.


Background
The Enlightenment developed as an extension of the Scientific Revolution. During the Scientific Revolution, Europeans discarded traditional beliefs and began using reason to explain the world around them. While the Scientific Revolution focused on the physical world, the Enlightenment attempted to explain the purpose of government, and describe the best form of it. The most influential Enlightenment thinkers were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Voltaire, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean Jacques Rousseau.

Enlightenment Thinkers

Hobbes Locke Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau
View on Rights Protected only through social contract Humans all have natural rights to: life, liberty & property Advocated freedom of speech Rights best protected when
¯
Social Contract. Rule by majority "General Will"
Views on Government Protected people from others' cruelty To protect natural rights Advocated religious toleration Separation of powers to prevent tyranny People give up freedoms for govt. protection

Later Developments
During the Enlightenment, political philosophers, especially in France and England, proposed alternatives to monarchy as a form of government. The French philosophes, as they were known, suggested mankind needed government, but not an absolute monarchy like that of Louis XIV under which they lived.

Where the political philosophers disagreed, was on what kind of government was the best. Some said monarchy was best, while others claimed it was democracy. A few claimed that a monarchy with democratic elements would work best. Still others, believed that economics played a major role in what kind of government people chose.

In the end, the philosophes could not agree upon the merits of any single form of government. It was from those discussions that the American Founding Fathers derived many of their ideas about equality, freedom and the sanctity of life.

Impact
Enlightenment ideas helped to stimulate people's sense of individualism, and the basic belief in equal rights. This in turn led to the Glorious Revolution is Britain, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Latin American Revolutions. Some of these revolutions resulted in government based upon the ideas of the Enlightenment. On the other hand, several failed revolutions resulted in even stricter government control of everyday life.

Elsewhere, a few monarchs retained absolute control of their countries while also enacting reform based on Enlightenment ideas. These monarchs are called Enlightened Despots. In Austria, Maria Teresa and her son Joseph II both introduced reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. They reduced the tax load on the peasants, provided free education, and ended censorship in their empire. In Russia, Catherine the Great introduced similar reforms. She enacted laws for religious toleration and free education, and also sought the advice of nobles and peasants in the running of government. However, these reforms seldom outlived the monarchs who had enacted them.


Imperialism
Imperialism occurs when a strong nation takes over a weaker nation or region and dominates its economic, political, or cultural life. This type of foreign policy was practiced by European nations and Japan throughout the 1800s and early 1900s. In every case, a nation would experience industrialization prior to practicing imperialism on a foreign nation or region. This was due to the nearly insatiable demand for cheap raw materials and the need for markets to buy manufactured goods

Old Imperialism
Old Imperialism occurs in the 15th through 18th centuries in Africa, India, the Americas, and parts of Asia The motives were the same for most areas, the establishment of lucrative trade routes. Various European countries dominated these trades routes and one time or another, and a some countries, such as Great Britain and Spain, came to dominate entire countries.

Industrial Roots
Abundant raw materials and vast markets are needed in order to maintain an industrialized economy. Raw materials such as iron and cotton can be turned into products such as steel and textiles. Finally, these products need to be sold to a market in order to realize a profit.

The forces of industrialization caused nations to begin looking outside of their borders for cheaper and more abundant raw materials. Foreign populations were also viewed as vast markets where goods produced in domestic factories could be sold.

Other Causes
Nationalism, or pride in one’s country, also contributed to the growth of imperialism. Citizens were proud of their country’s accomplishments, which sometimes included taking over foreign areas. As European nations became competitive with one another, there was an increased pressure to practice imperialism in order to maintain a balance of power in Europe.

Causes of European Imperialism

Economic Motives The Industrial Revolution created an insatiable demand for raw materials and new markets.
Nationalism European nations wanted to demonstrate their power and prestige to the world.
Balance of Power European nations were forced to acquire new colonies to achieve a balance with their neighbors and competitors.
White Man's Burden The Europeans’ sense of superiority made them feel obligated to bring their version of civilization to areas they considered uncivilized.

Results
In the short-term, imperialism was a very profitable foreign policy which came at the expense of the foreign regions where it was being practiced. Cultural diffusion also occurred, leading to an exchange of ideas between the West and the East. For example, European methods of education were adopted, leading non-Europeans to study ideas of liberty and democracy embraced during the Enlightenment and various political revolutions. This exchange eventually led to the demise of imperialism and colonialism throughout the world after World War Two.

Greece
The Ancient Greeks were the first to use democracy as a form of government. Under Pericles, male citizens in Athens participated in the daily running of government. This form of direct democracy excluded all non-citizens, such as women and slaves. Today, many governments around the world practice some form of democracy.

In Ancient Rome, a government where officials were chosen from among eligible citizens was established. A republic, a this form of democratic government is known, is not a direct democracy. It is called representative democracy, since only a few chosen officials represent the citizens as a whole.

Rome

During the period when Rome was a republic, from about 509 BCE to around 270 BCE ., the Senate was the most powerful branch of government. Senators were elected for life, and only came from the group of land-owning aristocrats called Patricians. Senators, in turn, elected two consuls, who were responsible for the daily business management of the government, and who were in charge of the army. A consul is like a president, but is appointed, and serves for only one year.

Problems arose in Rome because the lower class plebeians had little power in government, and had to rely on the patronage of patricians in order to make changes. In fact, by 450 BCE, plebeians had succeeded in getting the laws of Rome written down for all to see. The Laws of the Twelve Tables were the basis of Roman law, and influenced later democratic thinkers during the Enlightenment, over 2000 years later.

In the later Republic, a few patricians, such as the brothers Gaius and Tiberius Gracchus, began lobbying for expanded plebeian rights. Politically, it was a dangerous job, and many patricians struggling for plebeian representation were assassinated.

By the beginning of the Common Era, Rome had conquered nearly all of the land around the Mediterranean Sea. Attempts to reform Roman government led to a series of civil wars, and the republican form of government lost out to a veiled kind of monarchy with an emperor at its head. The emperor still maintained the Senate, but they were at his command, and rarely voted contrary his wishes. By the end of the Pax Romana, democracy was nearly dead in Rome.

Northern European Democracy and its Descendants

As a form of government, democracy was virtually unheard of in Europe after about 150 CE. In 1215 CE, the nobility in England forced King John to sign a Great Charter, the Magna Carta, recognizing their rights as land-owners, citizens of England, and subjects of the king. After that, it was not until the late 1600s that democratic ideals began to resurface in Europe, when some English and French philosophers began promoting democratic government in place of the absolute monarchies under which they lived.



In England, the English Bill of Rights was passed by Parliament after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Power was transferred from Catholic James II to his son-in-law and daughter, William and Mary, both of whom were Protestant. The Bill of Rights ensured the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy in England. England was still not a true democracy, but it was taking steps toward becoming one.



As children of England, the colonies in America had the benefit of knowing a democratic form of government. In 1776, the American colonies declared their independence from England based on many real and perceived wrongs that they had suffered. The original revolutionaries wrote a declaration outlining their grievances, and claimed the right to self rule, or sovereignty. The Declaration of Independence included many Enlightenment ideas: the right to life, liberty and property (John Locke); religious toleration and freedom of speech (Voltaire); separation of powers (Baron de Montesquieu).



The success of the American Revolution and its guiding principles was a major inspiration of the French Revolution in 1789, and the Latin American Revolutions of the 1790s and early 1800s. Proof that foreign rule and slave chains could be thrown off was extremely encouraging to the mixed-blood inhabitants of the Caribbean islands, and Latin America.



The Modern World

In the 1830s and 1840s, a series of democratic revolutions occurred throughout Europe. Most of them were harshly put down. After World War II, most of northern, western and southern Europe, America, Japan, South America and the parts of the former British Empire, practiced some form of democracy. Today, democracy is one of the most widely practiced political systems in the world.


Explanation and Background of Socialism and Marxism
Socialism and Communism are more accurately called economic and social systems rather than political systems. However, the real world application of the economics behind socialism and communism requires a particular form of government able to support it.

Early socialists wanted to create self-sufficient communities where everyone owned everything together, and where no one was left in need of anything. In other words, all property and work was shared for the benefit of the entire community. Socialists believed that if there was no money and everyone's needs were met, war and fighting would stop.

Marxist Socialism

In 1848, Karl Marx, a German living in London, England, and Friedrich Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto to explain their ideas. In it, Marx and Engels claimed that all of history was a continuous struggle between people who had material goods and wealth, and people who did not have any (the "haves" vs. the "have nots"). They also said that capitalism, an economic system in which factories and businesses are owned by private individuals or corporations, took advantage of the working class, and, therefore, should be abolished.

Marx and Engels believed that all over Europe the working class, the proletariat, would overthrow the capitalist system and form their own governments in response to capitalist abuses. Further, they thought that such governments would create a classless society in which all wealth and power would be shared equally among all people.

The Communist Revolution, as predicted by Marx and Engels, did not occur. What neither man had considered, was that nationalism, a feeling of intense pride and devotion to one's country, was even stronger than the desire to be free from capitalist oppression.

Communist Successes

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) / Soviet Union

Ironically, the first time Communists successfully overthrew an established government, it was not even a capitalist one. In Russia, in 1917, V.I. Lenin and Leon Trotsky led a group of socialist revolutionaries called Bolsheviks, in a coup against Czar Nicholas II. Lenin promised the people "peace, land and bread," but used secret police and brutality to create a one-party government where the Communist Party, and not the people, had the ultimate power.

Lenin's successor, Josef Stalin, turned Russia, now called the Soviet Union, into a totalitarian state. Every aspect of people's lives was controlled by the government. To strengthen its control, command economy, where government officials made all economic decisions, was put in place by the Communist Party.

Stalin forced peasants to give up ownership of their land and live on government-owned farms called collectives. On a collective farm, all animals and equipment were owned by the state. The government controlled the prices paid to the farmers for their products, and forced them to fill quotas, or production goals.

Stalin also tried to spur industrial production, hoping to catch up to the United States as a world superpower. People who refused to give up their factories and businesses and become workers of the government, or conform, were arrested and sent to prison. Tens of millions of political protesters, uncooperative peasants and Stalin's personal enemies disappeared forever.

The People's Republic of China

As in Russia, the communist revolution in China was not one of workers vs. owners, but one of imperial government vs. poor starving peasants who felt that government had abandoned them. After years of civil war, China became a Communist nation in 1949. The newly communist China looked to the Soviet Union for leadership, but quickly turned in a different direction.

The leader of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong, wanted to transform China from an agricultural society into a modern industrial power. Mao undertook a number of programs in order to achieve his goal. He created communes, a Chinese version of the Russian collective, tried to renew Chinese culture. He also launched a series of agricultural and industrial production initiatives, and improved the social standing of women.

Conclusions
In both China and the Soviet Union, human rights were overlooked in the effort to create a strong Communist nation. Tens of millions of dissenters, people who strongly disagree with a policy or idea, were killed. In each county, the goal of turning previously agricultural nations into powerful industrial giants only led to famine and further suffering for the general populace because of popular resistance to government policies.

Both China and the Soviet Union created something very different from the socialist utopia envisioned by Marx and Engels in 1848. Mao and Stalin transformed their nations from absolute monarchies into totalitarian states with command economies. In both cases, private citizens ended up in even more strictly controlled societies, where personal freedoms were severely restricted, and most people feared to speak out against government corruption or abuse.

The Soviet Union fell apart in 1991 after most of its satellite states regained their independence. China is still controlled by a communist government.

atp

Answer 2

To complain about all the bullsh-- nobody cares about just to try convincing the people that the other party sucks @-- and waste taxpayer money on crap we don't need just to say the current president isn't doing his job, while at the same time going against whatever that president is trying to do for us so they can again complain that he's lying to us. Also, they'll say you're full of sh-- but never say why. If you ask they'll just respond with more of the same BS about how you're full of sh-- and irritate you to the point you'll want to beat their sorry @--s all over town, and they have only themselves to blame because if anyone tells you " You're full of sh--. " they better be good and ready to answer politely when asked to be cared to say why.

Answer 3

Eco-system is interaction between living and non living components,stucture and function.