wat were some achievements of alexander the great?

Answer 1

encouraged interracial marraiges by marrying a persian princess. he urged knowledge to flow thru his empire by trnasporting foreign scholars to teach in his land.

Introduction
Alexander the Great (356-323BC), king of Macedonia and conqueror of Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Babylonia, and the Persian Empire, is not only one of my favourite commanders, but also one of my favourite historical figures. Alexander is considered to be one of the greatest military commanders in history, but he was also a skilled politician, and he possessed a strong personality, a human quality and a compassion which I find both appealing and fascinating.

In the following sections I will try to shed some light on his abilities as a military leader and politician, as well as his personality. This article is not supposed to portray Alexander objectively, on the contrary: I have only selected those aspects of Alexander and his life which are most interesting or appealing to me. Nonetheless, a section devoted to his misdeeds have been included, in order to draw a somewhat more balanced picture of Alexander.

The Military Leader
Alexander's Genius

"The personality of the general is indispensable, he is the head, he is the all of an army. ... It was not the Macedonian Phalanx which penetrated to India, but Alexander."
Napoleon Bonaparte
Superlatives such as 'brilliant' and 'genius' are often used to characterize skilled commanders, perhaps too often, but when it comes to Alexander these terms are well-deserved. Major General J.F.C. Fuller, author of The Generalship of Alexander the Great, stresses the importance of genius and how genius "binds the Great Captains into a common brotherhood". Fuller also states that "it was Alexander's genius that gave soul to his army". Although the term 'genius' may seem a bit abstract and hard to define, there is no doubt that Alexander's strong presence, physical and moral courage, toughness, ambitions, determination, victories and achievements instilled an important sense of awe, admiration, security and affection in his troops.

The Principles of Clausewitz

"Read over and over again the campaigns of Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Gustavus, Turenne, Eugene and Frederic. ... This is the only way to become a great general and master the secrets of the art of war. ..."
Napoleon Bonaparte, "Military Maxims of Napoleon"
Alexander, who was both supreme commander of the army and a political autocrat, understood that the military objective was only a means to an end, and that in the end his objective was to achieve a better peace. His understanding of the balance between military force and political means went beyond the idea of simply annihilating enemy armies, a widespread view which was influenced by Clausewitz during the 19th century. Alexander's aim was conquest (of the Persian empire) not plundering, he didn't want to ravage his future territories or antagonize his enemies more than necessary. Fuller writes that "the defeat of the army was his strategical aim; the winning over the peoples his political aim."

Fuller proceeds by comparing Alexander's achievements with the five strategical principles of Clausewitz, and points out that "the value of utmost energy, concentration at the decisive point, rapidity of movement, surprise and pursuit were as clearly apparent to Alexander as they were to Clausewitz." He also illustrates Alexander's understanding of other strategical and tactical factors such as the element of surprise, the principles of maintaining the aim, the offensive and the economy of force, and the establishment of secure bases and secure communications (1).

Adaptive Strategies and Combined-Arms Armies

"The light-armed troops are like the hands, the cavalry like the feet, the line of men-at-arms itself like chest and breast-plate, and the general like the head."
Iphicrates (according to Plutarch)
Alexander's ability to successfully adapt strategy and tactics to almost any kind of warfare, ranging from major battles, sieges, minor skirmishes, guerrilla opposition and revolts, sets him apart from other great commanders. Successful commanders were traditionally skilled in conventional, open warfare, but many of them never had to face an elusive hit-and-run enemy or besiege an enemy stronghold. He never lost a battle during his 10 year long campaign between 335 and 325 BC (2), and he conducted a major battle or siege at least once almost every year in this period. The highly trained, equipped and motivated combined-arms army which Alexander inherited from his father, was able to fit, adapt to and meet the challenges of any situation. Fuller describes the army as being "the most perfectly organized, trained, and equipped army of ancient times."

Morale, Motivation and Unit Cohesion

"Death is nothing, but to live defeated is to die every day."
Napoleon Bonaparte
Many well-known and famous military leaders, such as field-marshal Sir B.Law Montgomery and general H. Norman Schwarzkopf, have stressed the importance of taking care of the soldiers to boost morale, motivation and unit cohesion. Alexander was a prime example of this sort of leader: He repeatedly demonstrated his bravery by leading his men into battle (3), he laboured with them, cared for them, showed a genuine concern for their welfare and he would not ask his men to do what he would not do or was incapable of doing himself.

Fuller mentions one insightful ritual: "Before battle, he would ride down the ranks, and call aloud by name, [those men] who in previous battles had performed conspicuous deeds of valor." Being praised before his comrades by the commander himself in this manner must have been a major morale booster for a soldier. After the battle he would care for his wounded men, give the fallen - both friend and foe alike - a splendid military funeral and praise those who had shown bravery in battle. Now and then he would arrange games and festivals to celebrate and further boost morale and keep the troops happy. Furthermore, the children of those who had lost their lives received their father's pay, and once he sent his newly married men home to spend the winter with their families. During the Indian campaign he also cancelled the soldier's debts.

Theatricality and Power of Speech

Military historian John Keegan believes that theatricality, ceremony and power of speech (oratory) was part of Alexander's leadership style, and he even states that "[Alexander] was in the strongest sense a brilliant theatrical performer in his own right". His dramatic appearances on the battlefield, the dramatization of his own behaviour in front of his men when necessary, and the opportunistic role of the prima donna, were in a sense a kind of conscious, psychological means to an end. Keegan also mentions several incidents which would later become a part of the Alexander legend, of which the two most well-known are perhaps Alexander's cutting of the Gordian Knot (4) and the taming of Bucephalus, the black stallion. Bucephalus would later become his faithful warhorse for almost 16 years until it was fatally wounded at the battle of Hydaspes (5).


The Statesman

Grand Strategy

"I would rather live a short life of glory than a long one of obscurity."
Alexander the Great
Alexander's military deeds would be of no or limited use if his victories had not been paired with his deep understanding of statesmanship and the skillful use of political and diplomatic means. As a king and general, he possessed complete political and military power, and he was free to balance and mix these two factors the way he wanted into a grand strategy (6). His policy was based on conciliation and the idea that the goodwill of the population is the moral foundation for military power. The Asiatic Greeks looked upon him as a liberator rather than an invader, because he treated them as free allies and showed great respect for Hellenistic traditions by restoring and rebuilding their temples.

When he encountered the Iranians, who were loyal to the Persian monarchy, he decided to win over their leaders rather than the people by basing his policy on partnership. He appealed to their self-interest and took advantage of his reputation and the cowardice of Darius, ruler of the Persian empire, who had twice fled from the battlefield. Later, after Darius' death, he even extended his policy to include Persian court etiquette and the wearing of Persian apparel, in order to show respect for his new subjects, although these changes antagonized many of his veteran soldiers. A less friendly approach would have made the conquest of Persia much more difficult, perhaps impossible, because he would then have to leave a substantial part of his army behind to garrison the provinces.


Alexander's Childhood and Personality

In order to better understand Alexander's personality it is worthwhile to devote a few sections to his childhood and upbringing.

Alexander's Parents

He was probably born in July 356 B.C. and was the son of Philip II, King of Macedonia, and Olympias, an Epirote princess. Olympias was passionate, headstrong, mystical but immodest and unpopular among Philip's Macedonian courtiers. She was superstitious and participated in orgiastic rites of the cult of Dionysus. It was during one of these sexual festivals that the 20 year old Greek princess met Philip. Philip was 25 at that time and had already married thrice and fathered three (legitimate) children. Soon after they married and one year after the festival Alexander was born (7).

One incident sheds some light on Philip's deteriorating relationship with Olympias, and Alexander's attitude towards his parents: In 337 B.C., 20 years after his marriage to Olympias, Philip married Eurydice (AKA Cleopatra), who was to be his seventh wife and bore his child. Philip's other wives were indifferent, but Olympias was upset: Eurydice was a noble Macedonian girl with powerful relations, not a foreign Epirote like herself, and she feared for her position as a Queen and her son's succession to the throne. At the wedding feast, Eurydice's drunken uncle insulted Alexander by implying that he was a bastard, there was a brawl, swords were drawn and Alexander collected his mother and fled to Epirus (before leaving for Illyria). Alexander would return shortly afterward, however, and he eventually made peace with Philip, although he probably never forgave him for divorcing Olympias.

Childhood and Upbringing

"[Alexander was] a lover of learning and a lover of reading."
Plutarch
Philip was too occupied with war and politics and Alexander consequently grew attached to his mother during his early childhood. It is believed that she expressed a possessive love for her son and that she had great influence in molding him (whether he felt an Oedipal attraction to his mother seems to be open for discussion).

As a prince, he received a royal upbringing: At the age of ten he was entrusted to the teacher and disciplinarian Leonides for physical training, self-control and discipline. At the age of thirteen he was tutored by Aristotle the philosopher, Plato's most acclaimed student. He was taught medicine, botany, zoology, politics and philosophy (8). Aristotle was an empiricist, and stressed the discipline of mind, an empirical approach to the world, logical analysis and rationalism. However, Alexander rejected his master's belief in the existence of master- and slave-races, but his vision of racial fusion during his later campaigns turned out to be unsuccessful mostly because many Greeks disapproved of the idea, and because of the inefficiency of the Iranian satraps.

He became an avid reader and was so fascinated by the heroic tales of mythical soldiers such as Achilles, that he always carried with him Homer's Illiad on his campaigns. During his childhood Alexander was also schooled in the rituals of hospitality and he learned to sing, play the lyre and hunt, and he received formal education in debate and epic poetry. By the age of sixteen he had already learnt how to ride a warhorse and fight, and when he was temporarily left in charge of Macedonia in 340 B.C., he went to war against the Thracian tribes and defeated them (9).

Physical Appearance

As for his looks, many historians believe, based on ancient paintings, sculptures and documents, that Alexander was very handsome. R.L. Fox describes him as having long, blond hair reaching down to his neck, a straight nose, a prominent forehead, a short, jutting chin, a clean shaven beard and an intense gaze. Keegan writes: "Looks favoured him.... His brow, the jut of his nose and the set of his lips were characteristically noble, his curling hair grew in a peak on his forehead, his skin was smooth and slightly florid." It is unclear, however, how tall he actually was, but there seems to be a consensus among historians that he was rather short but well-proportioned.

Alexander's Personality

In The Campaigns of Alexander, Arrian describes him as possessing "great personal beauty, invincible power of endurance, and a keen intellect; he was brave and adventurous, strict in the observance of his religious duties, and hungry for fame. Most temperate in the pleasures of the body, his passion was for glory only, and in that he was insatiable. He had an uncanny instinct for the right course in a difficult and complex situation, and was most happy in his deductions from observed facts. ... No cheat or liar ever caught him off his guard, and both his word and his bond were inviolable. Spending but little on his own pleasures, he poured out his money without stint for the benefit of his friends."

Fuller also believes he had "[brains], grace, charm, skill at arms, and more self-confidence than was usual even in one deliberately raised to believe in himself.", and stresses Alexander's compassion toward others, his sense of royalty and chivalrous attitude towards his enemies. He treated Porus, whom he had defeated at the banks of Hydaspes, as a king, and not only let him rule over his own Indian people, but he extended his borders as well. During the siege of Miletus he felt pity for the besieged people, and made a truce when he realized they were going to fight to the death. He also pardoned the starving soldiers who had stolen food during the march through the Gedrosian desert.

There were also several incidents in which Alexander demonstrated his compassion towards women: After the battle of Issus, the mother, wife and children of Darius were captured, and they grieved, believing that Darius had been killed in battle. Alexander, however, told them that Darius was still alive (he had fled the battle), and that they would be treated as queens. When Darius' soldiers came to rescue Darius' mother, she even refused to leave, and after Alexander died she mourned his demise and fasted to death. Alexander loathed the rape and abuse of women, a quite remarkable view at that time, when women were considered legitimate spoils of war (10). On one noteworthy occasion, he was offered 100 armed girls by the viceroy of Media, but he dismissed them from the army, fearing that they might get violated.

Sex and Alcohol

Alexander's sexual orientation has been subject to a lot of discussion in modern studies. Some sources portray him as homosexual (11), others deny it (12) Dr. Jeanne Reames-Zimmerman, in her dissertation about Hephaistion (Alexander's very best friend for over 19 years), believes that there is no indisputable evidence for a sexual relationship between him and Alexander. In the end, because of lack of indisputable evidence, it boils down to what we prefer to believe. I would not consider it a weakness of character if it turned out that Alexander actually was homoerotic.

Alexander respected women, but was he interested in them? This issue has also been heavily debated by modern historians (13). Alexander married thrice (Roxane, Stateira, Parysati), but primarily for political and sentimental reasons. His wives later gave birth to 3-4 children. However, it is believed that Alexander had two mistresses (Barsine, Pankaste) and occassional assignations as well.

Personally, I believe Alexander was simply 'bierotic', and there seems to be no substance or evidence to the claims that he was an impotent, raving alcoholic and sex monster. It seems that Alexander could get drunk now and then, but occasional drinking to excess was accepted as normal by the ancient Greeks. But more importantly, none of these claims, even if they turned out to be true, are relevant to his great achievements as a politician and military leader.


Alexander's Misdeeds

"In the course of this book I have, admittedly, found fault with some of the things which Alexander did, but for the man himself I am not ashamed to express ungrudging admiration."
Arrian, Book VII, "The Campaigns of Alexander"
Although the life of Alexander is filled with military victories, deeds and other achievements, his wrong-doings and less glorious exploits are also worth mentioning. I think the following passage from The Great Battles of Antiquity neatly sums up the kind of misdeeds I am talking about: "... if circumstances demanded it he could (and did) order the slaughter of the enemy and even of its prisoners, destroy an entire city and sell its population into slavery (Thebes and Tyre), or order the murder of those who had turned against him, even if they were his lifelong friends."

Some of the incidents, such as the massacre of the Thebans and the slaughter of the Malli, would be labelled atrocities by today's standards, while the killing of, for example, Cleitus, Parmenion and Eurydice's infant son, would be considered personal crimes. However, I believe it is important to keep in mind that these misdeeds were not committed without some sort of rationale or underlying reason, although the killing and slaughter may seem hard to justify.

For example, prior to the massacre of the Theban town (14), the inhabitants had been asked to submit and honor their oath to the League, but instead they sent him an insulting reply. Besides, his Greek assistants voted for the city's full destruction as a 'repayment' for what the Thebans had done to them in the past. The slaughter of the Malli was an act of revenge because Alexander had been seriously injured during the assault.

Parmenion, one of Alexander's leading generals, was assassinated because Alexander believed he was involved in a conspiracy against him. Officer Cleitus the Black, angry and drunk, was killed by a drunken Alexander at a banquet after he had insulted the king (15). Eurydice's infant son was killed because Alexander was surrounded by enemies at home, and the child represented a threat to Alexander's succession during the unstable political situation which unfolded immediately after Philip's death (16). Several other people were killed based on the evidence or suspicion (without a fair trial) that they conspired or planned to kill Alexander.

Alexander's anger grew more pronounced in his later years, when the strains of his long campaigns and the increasing dissent among his men started to take its toll on his temper and confidence towards his own men. The authors of The Great Battles of Antiquity believes that "Alexander was one of those 'most dangerous of men' that Goethe spoke of, and idealist armed with a sense of ruthlessness that only emerged when the ideal was threatened."

However, I would do Alexander a great injustice if I only considered his misdeeds from today's perspective. Besides, war and political powerplay have never been a clean business. In my opinion, Alexander's achievements easily overshadows his misdeeds. I believe Fuller is right when he writes "When the moral standards of the fourth century are borne in mind, as well as Alexander's youth and the immensity of his task, its dangers and difficulties, his misdeeds, when compared with those of other great conquerors, are remarkably few." Arrian has also expressed his views on this issue: "I think Alexander deserves great praise... that he did not obstinately persevere in evil, or still worse become a defender and advocate of the wrong which had been done, but confessed that he had committed a crime, being a man (and therefore liable to err)."


Historical Bias and Credibility

"History is written by victors." There is a lot of truth to this statement, because we lack a contemporary Persian view of the events, and historical writings are more or less biased. Modern historians try to correlate this information by performing cross-checks across various kinds of sources, and then apply 'common sense' based on empirical, general knowledge in order to 'solve' the riddle. Therefore, even when the thick layers of pure legend and myth have been peeled away, and whenever we lack evidence through direct verification or observation, our evolving knowledge about Alexander is still, more or less, based on assumptions.

Answer 2

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Answer 3

United Greece
Conquered much of the known world

Answer 4

Check out wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great

Also, the BBC has a really short article on his achievements: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/greeks/alexander_the_great_01.shtml

Answer 5

I read where he almost conquered the whole world of his day or at least his continient. Europe

Answer 6

Alexander the Great (Greek: Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history. The name 'Alexander' derives from the Greek words "alexo" (αλέξω, refuge, defense, protection) and "anir" (ανήρ, man). Before his death, he conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks. Alexander is also known in the Zoroastrian Middle Persian work Arda Wiraz Nāmag as "the accursed Alexander" due to his conquest of the Persian Empire and the destruction of its capital Persepolis.

In 336 BC Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra of Macedonia to King Alexander of Epirus. The assassin was supposedly a former lover of the king, the disgruntled young nobleman Pausanias of Orestis, who held a grudge against Philip because the king had ignored a complaint he had expressed. Philip's murder was once thought to have been planned with the knowledge and involvement of Alexander or Olympias. Another possible instigator could have been Darius III, the recently crowned King of Persia. After Philip's death, the army proclaimed Alexander, then aged 20, as the new king of Macedon. Greek cities like Athens and Thebes, which had been forced to pledge allegiance to Philip, saw in the new king an opportunity to retake their full independence. Alexander moved swiftly and Thebes, which had been most active against him, submitted when he appeared at its gates. The assembled Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth, with the exception of the Spartans, elected him to the command against Persia, which had previously been bestowed upon his father.

The next year, (335 BC), Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians in order to secure the Danube as the northern boundary of the Macedonian kingdom. While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander reacted immediately and while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided this time to resist with the utmost vigor. The resistance was useless; in the end, the city was conquered with great bloodshed. The Thebans encountered an even harsher fate when their city was razed to the ground and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, all of the city's citizens were sold into slavery; Alexander spared only the priests, the leaders of the pro-Macedonian party, and the descendants of Pindar, whose house was the only one left standing. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission, but According to Plutarch, a special Athenian embassy led by Phocion, an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to give up his demand for the exile of leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, particularly Demosthenes.



Fall of the Persian Empire
Alexander's army had crossed the Hellespont with about 42,000 Macedonians and Greeks, more southern city-states of Greece, but also including some Thracians, Paionians and Illyrians. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis and proceeded down the Ionian coast. At Halicarnassus, Alexander successfully waged the first of many sieges, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left Caria in the hands of Ada, who was ruler of Caria before being deposed by her brother Pixodarus. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities and denying them to his enemy. From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so Alexander moved inland. At Termessus, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the tangled Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia." According to the most vivid story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and he hacked it apart with his sword. Another version claims that he did not use the sword, but actually figured out how to undo the knot.



Invasion of India

Campaigns and landmarks of Alexander's invasion of Southern Asia.After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in Bactrian) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, in 326 BC Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to the Indian subcontinent. Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Pakistan, to come to him and submit to his authority. Ambhi(Greek: Omphis), ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Jhelum (Greek:Hydaspes) , complied. But the chieftains of some hilly clans including the, Aspasios and Assakenois sections of the Kambojas (classical names), known in Indian texts as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas (names referring to the equestrian nature of their society from the Sanskrit root work Ashva meaning horse), refused to submit.

Alexander personally took command of the shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians and horse-javelin-men and led them against the Kamboja clans—the Aspasios of Kunar/Alishang valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus (Panjkora) valley, and the Assakenois of the Swat and Buner valleys. Writes one modern historian: "They were brave people and it was hard work for Alexander to take their strongholds, of which Massaga and Aornus need special mention."[5] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasios in which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart but eventually the Aspasios lost the fight; 40,000 of them were enslaved. The Assakenois faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry and 30 elephants.[6] They had fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds like cities of Ora, Bazira and Massaga. The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle. When the Chieftain of Massaga fell in the battle, the supreme command of the army went to his old mother Cleophis (q.v.) who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the supreme command of the military also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting.[7] Alexander could only reduce Massaga by resorting to political strategem and actions of betrayal. According to Curtius: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles." A similar manslaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenois