Science!!!!!?

Question

describe how the respiratory and circulatory systems work together to transport oxygen!!

Answer 1

Oxygen is needed by aerobic organisms because it is the final electron acceptor during cellular respiration. The diagram below shows that Cellular respiration is a process in which electrons are removed from glucose in a series of steps. The electrons are carried by NADH and FADH2 to the electron transport system. The electron transport system uses the energy in the electrons to synthesize ATP. The remaining carbon atoms in the glucose molecule are released as CO2, a waste product. The equation for the complete breakdown of glucose by aerobic eukaryotes is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ® 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP

Chapter 42 - Respiratory System
Introduction
Oxygen is needed by aerobic organisms because it is the final electron acceptor during cellular respiration. The diagram below shows that Cellular respiration is a process in which electrons are removed from glucose in a series of steps. The electrons are carried by NADH and FADH2 to the electron transport system. The electron transport system uses the energy in the electrons to synthesize ATP. The remaining carbon atoms in the glucose molecule are released as CO2, a waste product. The equation for the complete breakdown of glucose by aerobic eukaryotes is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ® 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP



Atmosphere
78% N2, 21% O2, 1% argon, noble gases, CO2

Some Properties of Gases
Diffusion refers to movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by one gas in a mixture.

Total atmospheric pressure at sea level = 760 mm Hg.

Partial pressure O2 = 760 X .21 = 160 mm Hg.

Gasses move by diffusion from areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure.

Respiratory Surfaces
All animals need to take in O2 and eliminate CO2. Lungs are membranous structures designed for gas exchange in a terrestrial environment. Gills are designed for gas exchange in an aquatic environment.

Oxygen must be dissolved in water before animals can take it up. Therefore, the respiratory surfaces of animals (gills, lungs, etc.) must always be moist. This is true of all animals.

Very small organisms don't need respiratory surfaces because they have a high surface:volume ratio.

Skin
The skin can be used as a respiratory surface but it does not have much surface area compared to lungs or gills. Animals that rely on their skin as a respiratory organ are small and either have low metabolic rates or they also have lungs or gills.

Like all respiratory surfaces, the skin must remain moist to function in gas exchange.

Amphibians, most annelids, some mollusks, and some arthropods use their skin as a respiratory organ.

Gills
Gills provide a large surface area for gas exchange in aquatic organisms.

It is difficult to circulate water past gills because water is dense and the O2 concentration in water is low. There is 5% as much oxygen in water as there is in air. To circulate water past the gills, amphibian larvae physically move their gills, mollusks pump water into mantle cavity which contains the gills, and some crustacean gills are attached to branches of the walking legs.

The flow of blood in the gills of fish is in the opposite direction that water passes over the gills. This arrangement (called countercurrent flow) enables fish to extract more oxygen from the water than if blood moved in the same direction as the passing water.

Gills cannot be used in air because they lack structural support; they would collapse. Their use in air would also result in too much water loss by evaporation.

Tracheal System
Insects, centipedes, and some mites and spiders have a tracheal respiratory system.

Tracheae are a network of tubules that bring oxygen directly to the tissues and allow carbon dioxide to escape. The openings to the outside, called spiracles, are located on the side of the abdomen.

Trachea and lungs are internal to reduce water loss.

Vertebrate Lungs
Simple lungs evolved 450 million years ago in fish.

Some evolved into swim bladders.

Others evolved into more complex lungs.

Paired lungs are the respiratory surfaces in all reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Amphibians
lung is a simple convoluted sac

have small lungs but obtain much O2 by diffusion across moist skin

ventilate lungs by positive pressure; (reptiles, birds and mammals use negative pressure)

Reptiles
watertight skin; not used as a respiratory surface

lungs possess alveoli

all diffusion occurs across alveolar surface

Birds and Mammals
lungs are more branched with smaller, more numerous alveoli

Bird
Respiratory System
Birds have one-way flow of air in their lungs. As a result, the lungs receive fresh air during inhalation and again during exhalation.

advantages of one-way flow:

no residual volume; all old (stale) air leaves with each breath

crosscurrent flow (crosscurrent = 90° ; countercurrent = 180°; crosscurrent is not as efficient but is still more efficient than mammalian lung)

One-way flow is accomplished by the use of air sacs as illustrated below. During inspiration, the air sacs fill. During expiration, they empty.





Human Respiratory System
Surface area of human lung is 60 to 80 sq. meters

Structures
pharynx ® epiglottis (open space is the glottis) ® larynx with vocal cords ® trachea ® bronchi ® bronchioles ® alveoli

Nasal Cavities
hair and cilia filter dust and particles.

Blood vessels warm air and mucus moistens air.

Ventilation
To inhale, the diaphragm contracts and flattens.

Muscles move the rib cage which also contributes to expanding the chest cavity.

To exhale, the muscles relax and elastic lung tissue recoils.

The Heimlich Maneuver
Choking results when food enters the trachea instead of the esophagus.

The Heimlich maneuver can force air out of the lungs to dislodge the obstruction.

Respiratory pigments
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen and is found in the blood of most animals.

It is synthesized by and is contained within erythrocytes (red blood cells).

Oxygen is bound reversibly to the iron portion.

Hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carry capacity of the blood by 70 times. 95% of the oxygen is transported by hemoglobin, 5% in blood plasma.

The bright red color occurs when it is bound with oxygen.

Hemocyanin
Hemocyanin is a carrier protein found in many invertebrates

It uses copper instead of iron.

It does not occur within blood cells; it exists free in the blood. (Their blood is called hemolymph.)

It is bright blue when bound with oxygen.

Gas Exchange and Transport
Gas Exchange in humans occurs in alveoli. Gasses must diffuse across the alveolar wall, a thin film of interstitial fluid, and the capillary wall.

Partial pressures
LUNGS
TISSUES

OXYGEN
high
low

CO2
low
high


The partial pressure of CO2 is higher in the tissues because respiring tissues produce CO2 as a result of the breakdown of glucose (C6H12O6) during cellular respiration.

Oxygen Transport
1 hemoglobin molecule + 4 oxygen molecules ® oxyhemoglobin.

The amount of oxygen that combines depends upon the partial pressure. More oxygen is loaded at higher partial pressures of oxygen.

Hemoglobin does not necessarily release (unload) all of its oxygen as it passes through the body tissues. Oxyhemoglobin releases its oxygen when:

the partial pressure of O2 is low.

the partial pressure of CO2 is high. High CO2 causes the shape of the hemoglobin molecule to change and this augments the unloading of oxygen.

the temperature is high.

the pH is low.

Active tissues need more oxygen and all of the conditions listed above are characteristic of actively metabolizing tissues. Therefore, these tissues receive more oxygen from hemoglobin than less active tissues.

CO (carbon monoxide) binds to hemoglobin 200 times faster than O2 and does not readily dissociate from the hemoglobin. Small amounts of CO can cause respiratory failure.

Carbon Dioxide Transport
Carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs by one of the following ways:

dissolved CO2

bound to hemoglobin (HbCO2)

HCO3- (bicarbonate ions).

Most is transported as bicarbonate ions because...

CO2 + H2O « H2CO3 « HCO3- + H+

Low ¬ CO2 partial pressure ® High
( lungs) (tissues)

The equation above moves toward the right when the partial pressure of CO2 is high. When the partial pressure of CO2 is low, it moves to the left and CO2 comes out of solution.

In the active tissues, the CO2 partial pressure is high, so CO2 becomes dissolved in water, forming H2CO3, which then forms HCO3- and H+. In the lungs, the partial pressure of CO2 is low because the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is low. As blood passes through the lungs, HCO3- + H+ form H2CO3 which then forms CO2 + H2O.

Carbonic anhydrase (in red blood cells) speeds up this reaction 150 times.

HCO3- tends to diffuse out of the red blood cells into the plasma.



Control of breathing rate
Eliminating CO2 is usually a bigger problem for terrestrial vertebrates than obtaining O2. The body is therefore more sensitive to high CO2 concentration than low O2 concentration.

Aquatic vertebrates are more sensitive to low O2 because O2 is more limited in aquatic environments.

Neural Control Mechanisms in terrestrial vertebrates
During inhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles are stimulated. Other neurons inhibit these when exhaling.

Respiration is not under voluntary control.

Monitoring H+ and CO2
Chemoreceptors in the respiratory control center of the brain (medulla oblongata) detect changes in CO2 by monitoring pH of cerebrospinal fluid. High CO2 lowers the pH (an acid is a solution with a high H+ concentration).

CO2 + H2O « H2CO3 « HCO3- + H+

Chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery are also sensitive to pH and to greatly reduced amounts of O2.

Bronchiole diameter
The primary bronchus branches extensively into bronchioles. Terminal bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscle.

The diameter of the bronchioles (and blood vessels) increases or decreases in response to needs. It is adjusted by smooth muscle under the control of the nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system (discussed in the chapter on nervous systems) stimulates these muscles to contract, reducing the diameter of the airways. This is advantageous when the body is relaxing and breathing is shallow. Narrow bronchioles result in less air remaining within the lungs after each exhalation.

The sympathetic nervous system relaxes these muscles as a response to stressful situations. This allows a more rapid rate of intake and expulsion of air.

Allergens trigger histamine release which constricts muscles.

Narrower bronchioles result in decreased ventilation of the lungs.

Severe attacks may be life-threatening.

Defense Mechanisms in the Respiratory Tract
Large particles are filtered out by the nose.

Small particles are filtered out by cilia lining the bronchi and bronchioles.

Bronchitis
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the airways that causes mucous to accumulate. The normal cleansing activity of cilia is reduced and not sufficient to remove the mucous. Coughing attempts to clear the mucus.

Smoking and other irritants increase mucus secretion and diminish cilia function.

Emphysema
Emphysema occurs when the alveolar walls lose their elasticity. Damage to the walls also reduces the amount of surface available for gas exchange.

Emphysema is associated with environmental conditions, diet, infections, and genetics. It can result from chronic bronchitis when the airways become clogged with mucous and air becomes trapped within the alveoli.

Effects of Cigarette Smoke
Cigarette smoke prevents the cilia from beating and stimulates mucus secretion.

Coughing is necessary to expel excess mucous but it contributes to bronchitis and emphysema.

Cigarette smoke also kills phagocytic cells in respiratory epithelium. These cells normally help rid the lungs of foreign particles and bacteria.

Cigarette smoke contains compounds that are modified in the body to form carcinogens.

Smoking causes 80% of lung cancer deaths.


The circulatory system (scientifically known as the cardiovascular system) is an organ system that moves substances to and from cells; it can also help stabilize body temperature and pH (part of homeostasis). There are three types of circulatory systems (from simplest to most complex): no circulatory system, open circulatory system, and closed circulatory system.
Open circulatory system
An open circulatory system is an arrangement of internal transport present in some invertebrates like simple molluscs and arthropods in which circulatory fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel (also spelled haemocoel) bathes the organs directly and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is called hemolymph / haemolymph. Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited. When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open-ended pores.

Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells. Hemolymph is composed of water, inorganic salts (mostly Na+, Cl-, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+), and organic compounds (mostly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin.

There are free-floating cells then, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph. They play a role in the arthropod immune system.

No circulatory system
Circulatory systems are absent in some animals. An example is flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes). Their body cavity has no lining or fluid. They have a muscular pharynx leading to a digestive system. Digested materials can be diffused to all the cells of the flat worm due to an extensively branched digestive system and being flattened dorso-ventrally. Oxygen can diffuse from water into the cells of the flatworm. Consequently every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.

Measurement techniques
Electrocardiogram
Sphygmomanometer
Pulse meter
Stethoscope
PulseHealth and disease
Main article: Cardiovascular disease
Main article: Congenital heart defect
History of discovery
The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BC. However their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air.

Herophilus distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood.

The 2nd century AD Greek physician, Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.

Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.

In 1242 the Arab scholar Ibn Nafis became the first person to accurately describe the process of blood circulation in the human body. Contemporary drawings of this process have survived. In 1552, Michael Servetus described the same, and Realdo Colombo proved the concept, but it remained largely unknown in Europe.

Finally William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments and announced in 1628 the discovery of the human circulatory system as his own and published an influential book about it. This work with its essentially correct exposition slowly convinced the medical world. Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later described by Marcello Malpighi.

Answer 2

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Answer 3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_system

Do some reading....