Religious beliefs in japan?

Question

Religious beliefs in japan?
what were the religious beliefs in japan during the 11 centuries between CA 500 and 1500 in terms of the power that they gave to particular groups in at least four different momments in the long period, focusing on the different sets of power arrangements the people in each moment deviesed. what kinds of continuity, changen, and perhaps conflict do you see among your the four examples.

Please help this is a question i have to answer and I have no clue what to do or how to answer it.

Answer 1

According to Mark Mullins, Christian organizations in Japan fall into two categories: nonindigenous and indigenous . Specific beliefs and practices among these establishments vary greatly, more so among the indigenous sects. For this reason, the following is a generalized outline that covers the major precepts of the Christian faith. Therefore, they are part of the fundamental belief structure of Christian churches in Japan, nonindigenous and indigenous alike.
One unalienable tool in the Christian faith is the Bible . This book, the most read piece of literature in the world, is said to be the "word of God," and the source of religious instruction. The oldest existing Japanese version of the Bible is said to have been published in 1837. Prior to this, rough translations were sparsely available.

The Bible is broken down into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. While each book reveals a message through stories, the New Testament consists, too, of letters from Jesus' disciples. Five widely respected aspects of the Christian gospel are the the Ten Commandments , the creation myth in the Garden of Eden, the Trinity, the gift of free will, and the importance of faith. The foundation of the Christian definitions of right and wrong rests on the Ten Commandments , which are said to have been delivered to Moses from God in the book of Exodus. They are:


Thou shalt not have strange gods before me.
Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
Remember thou keep holy the Sabbath Day.
Honor they father and thy mother.
Thou shalt not kill.
Thou shalt not commit adultery.
Thou shalt not steal.
Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife.
Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's things.
These ten rules outline the basic precepts behind the Christian ethic.

The first book in the Bible , Genesis, describes the creation of the world and all creations within. God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. This day is represented in the Sabbath, the day of rest. The first man and woman, Adam and Eve, lived ignorant of "evil" in the Garden of Eden where they enjoyed daily interactions with God. Eve, after the crafty persuasion of a serpent in the garden, ate a fruit from the forbidden tree at the center of Eden. The serpent represents evil. Both Adam and Eve suffered physical and moral deaths and were severed from their daily interactions with God. They also came to know the difference between good and evil. Other repercussions include pain in childbirth, suffering, and death. God also offered his mortal children a chance to return to him in heaven after death (Genesis 3). This return home is the ultimate goal of Christians.

The next important aspect of the Christian faith is the Holy Trinity: the father, the son, and the Holy Spirit. Like the three physical forms of water, these three elements are different faces of the same being. First, God, as previously mentioned, is the creator of the world and all creatures. The son, Jesus, is said to have lived among mortals for thirty-six years. Tortured and crucified because he said he was the son of God, Jesus is said to have died for the sins of all humankind. "'For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have eternal life'" (Johns 3.16). Because of this act, all people can ascend into heaven if they believe in God and ask for forgiveness. Finally, the Holy Spirit is the helper said to be with believers always. When Jesus left the physical world, God promised to be with Christians always, to guide and protect each person (Johns 14.15). The belief and understanding of the Holy Trinity is important in the Christian faith.

Next, God gave humans free will. Each person chooses his or her own actions, and God wills everyone to use their free will in worship. Each individual needs only to "open the door" to the Lord (Revelation 3.20). Finally, faith plays a vital role in Christianity. Good deeds alone will not get an individual into heaven, for "the righteousness of God is revealed through faith for faith. . .'The one who is righteous will live by faith'" (Romans 1.17). These five aspects of Christianity offer a vague outline of the basic belief system presented in the Bible .

Denominational churches in Japan generally follow the belief systems of their Western counterparts. Most indigenous movements believe that "God's self-revelation" continued past the Christian scriptures ( Christian , Mullins: 28). God reveals still deeper truths to those open to the "ongoing work of the Holy Spirit." Many groups feel such truths are hidden or not yet grasped by Western Churches ( Christian , Mullins: 28). Many of these native-orientated movements also believe God calls for them to develop Christian faith within Japanese culture, therefore variances are unavoidable among Eastern and Western churches ( Christian , Mullins: 28). Uchimura Kanzo, an accredited founder of a Nonchurch movement in Japan, related Buddha to Christ in a 1926 editorial, depicting the two as complementary beings ( Christian , Mullins: 62). He also likened Christ's teachings to the Confucian ethics of loyalty, duty, and filial piety ( Christian , Mullins: 62). These are some specific examples of Christian beliefs that have been adjusted within the Japanese social setting.

Christ in Japan
The Schauwecker's Guide to Japan holds the copyright on this page andthe information within. As a guidebook, this page includes information about politics,regional issues, entertainment, current events, religion, tradition, history, population figures and more. This site seems to contain reliable information about a variety of facts, andthere are links to other facts are included.
http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2298.html

Gospel in Japan
This page is maintained by a private group called GOSPEL Japan. Their page includes links to belief explanations, arts and humanities, news and media events, and news articles from The Christian , a weekly newspaper. This page contains useful initial information aboutChristianity in modern Japan and gives the reader a worthy impression of such religious organizations.
http://www.gospeljapan.com/index-e.htm

Tokyo Church of Christ
This site is maintained by the Tokyo Church of Christ. In addition to beliefs and history, thispage also offers links to various other related sites. Details on service projects, meeting locations and times, and open invitations are also included.
http://www.intlcc.com/Tokyo/e/ewelcome.html

"Lack of Oppression Hurts Christianity in Japan"
This New York Times article offers an interesting view on the current state of Christianity in Japan. This author argues that the lack of Christian persecution and/or oppression has led to a decline in youth involvement in recent years.
http://www.ishipress.com/japan-ch.htm

"Religion in Contemporary Japanese Society"
This site includes an article by McFarland entitled, "Religion in Contemporary Japanese Society." Maintained by an informational organization called "Ask Asia," this article offers an examinationof Christianity in relation to Shinto and Buddhism (the two most well established religious tradtions in Japan).
http://www.askasia.org/frclasrm/readings/r000118.htm

Christianity in Japan
This theologian's site offers a well organized historical timeline, statistics on religious organizations in Japan (not just Christianity), and a list of sources for research. Though one should always be careful with statistical figures, the timeline presents a detailed, easy-to-read list of the major historical events in the relationship between Japan and Christianity.
http://private.fuller.edu/~shew/research/xty.jpn/BasicFacts-XTYJpn.html

The Bible
For those with Japanese readers on their computers, this site offers a historical recount ofthe Bible's translation, the history of the Japanese Bible , an explanation of the work itself, and an explanation of the Old and New Testaments.
http://www.bible.or.jp/

Japanese Demographic
This site provides the recent demographic figures of Japan. This site helps one to conceptualize the island nation through the characteristics of the people that live there.
http://www.stat.go.jp/151.htm



History:
Christianity flowed into Japan in three different waves: sixteenth century with Spanish missionaries, in the nineteenth century with the Meiji Restoration , and again in the twentieth century after World War II (Lande: 156).
With St. Francis Xavier as the accredited leader (Finkbeiner 63), the first missionaries in Japan were Roman Catholics from Spain ( Christianity , Mullins: 12). After Christianity's great initial success, Japanese authorities began to view the Western religion as an intrusive foreign element and a threat to national stability ( Christianty , Mullins: 12). The Christian tradition required exclusive dedication which clashed with the traditions of Japanese religions ("Ideology," Mullins: 262). Even today, many Japanese people view Buddhism as a household obligation and Shintoism as a communal obligation, and they incorporate both into their lives through various festivals andancestor rites ("Ideology," Mullins: 262).

In 1564, missionaries were expelled from Kyotoby Emperor Ogimachi and allowed to return in 1569 by Oda Nobunaga (Nosco: 5). In 1587, missionarieswere ordered to leave Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi , but this decree was not particularly enforced(Nosco: 5). The 1614 Expulsion Edict issued by Tokugawa Ieyasu brought about enforcement (Nosco: 5).In the mid 1600's, the Japanese Shogunate demanded the expulsion of all European missionaries andthe execution of all converts ( Christian , Mullins: 12).

For two centuries, the "hidden Christians" ( kakure kirishitan ) continued to secretly practice theirfaith ( Christian , Mullins: 12). Of the seven holy sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church (baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony), only baptism was allowed to flourish under the conditions of that period, because this sacrament was necessary for salvation and did not require an ordained priest (Nosco: 7). Abbreviated funeral services were also performed secretly before or after Buddhist services (Nosco: 7). Confirmation and ordination required the presence of a Bishop and marriage ceremonies were never common even before Christians were forced underground. Penance (defined as confession and repentance) could not be ignored because forgiveness is central in Christian theology. A text entitled Konshirisan no Ryaku ("Essentials of Contrition") emerged and included instructions on how to obtain forgiveness without the presence of clergy (Nosco: 7).

The second wave of Chrstianity in Japan was during the Meiji Restoration that began in 1868 and ended with the Meiji Era and World War II in 1945. In 1853, Commodore Perry convinced the Japanese to reopen their doors to the West, and in 1859 Roman Catholic missionaries returned and along with the first Protestant missionaries ( Chirstian , Mullins: 12).

Because Western missionaries initially hoped to avoid denominational labels, the first Protestant church established was non-denominational. The Church of Christ (estab. 1872) of Japan did not mark the beginning of a trend, and such labels emerged in a matter of years, following the abolishment of the law outlawing Christianity ( Christian , Mullins: 13).

The Meiji Constitution of themid-1800's guaranteed religious freedom, but by the 1930's the government became more "totalitarian" ( Christian , Mullins: 18). As a tool of unification and modernization, Shinto beliefs andpractices were labelled as patriotic, and the government came to require participation regardless of religious affiliation ( Christian , Mullins: 19). Shintoism became a symbol of nationality and those who did not comply with the governmental requirements faced persecution. Japanese churches became increasingly controlled by government demands -- a conflict between sacred and secular existence ( Christian , Mullins: 20).

Mullins identifies "three bands" of early groups of Prostestantism in Kimamoto, Yokohama , and Sapporo . While missionary instruction dominated the Yokohama "Band," lay educators flourished in the Kumamoto and Sapporo "Bands" ( Christianity , Mullins: 16). For example, one teacher named Captain Leroy Lansing Janes taught the Bible without political slants and "theological confessions" inherent in clergy instruction ( Christian , Mullins: 16). This historic influence remains apparent in "indigenous Christian movements" in Japan. Their "experiential orientation" varies greatly from the theologically orientated mission churches ( Christian , Mullins: 17).

In 1882, Protestant establishments included nine boys' schools, fifteen girls' schools, thirty-nine coeducational schools, and seven theological seminaries ( Christian , Mullins: 17). The Christian Yearbook , a Protestant publication, claimed only fifty-nine members in 1873, and claims 31,361 members in 1891. In 1890, the Roman Catholic Church claimed 44,505 members, and in 1900, the Russian Orthodox Church claimed 25,698 in membership ( Christian , Mullins: 18). According to Mullins, some non-Christian Japanese leaders considered making Christianity the state religion of Japan. "This was understood as an effective strategy for making Japan a recognized member of the international community as quickly as possible ( Christian , Mullins: 20).

1930 marked the beginning of an industrial revolution in Japan, and hence welcomed the problems inherent with a quickly changing economy ( Christian , Mullins: 18). Growth was remarkable between 1901 and 1930, as the Protestant church grew in membership nearly four times its size. The Roman Catholic Church's numbers appear to have nearly doubled in those three decades. ( Christian , Mullins: 18). White-collar class urbanites were most receptive to Christian efforts during this period ( Christian , Mullins: 18).

In 1939, the Diet (governing body of Japan) passed the Religious Organizations Law ( Shukyo dantai ho ) in which they reserved the right to disband religious groups whose teachings conflicted with the "Imperial Way" ("Ideology," Mullins: 263). In 1941, a revised Peace Preservation Law was passed. The intial version of 1925 was issued to control socialism and communist movements ("Ideology," Mullins: 262), and the revised version included "'dangerous ideas'" (264). This defined type of ideas included any thought process that strayed from the dominant polity of that time which painted Japan as the divine nation with entitlement to absolute rule by way of Manifest Destiny ("Ideology," Mullins: 264). Many churches adjusted to survive within the nationalistic society. The Roman Catholic Church and most Protestant churches requested that their members comply with civil rituals ("Ideology," Mullins: 264). Theological accomodations or "indigenous theologies" of that time include Japan as the designated kingdom of God and Japanese people the chosen people to establish a kingdom of peace in Asia ("Ideology," Mullins: 264).

The Kyodan, which consisted of thirty-four denominations, worked to accomodate the national circumstances ("Ideology," Mullins: 265). In 1941, this "government directed union" complied with most of the government's demands. The government remained skeptical of Christian philosophies. For example, even though God is the creator over all, he could not have created the emperor, who was a divine being himself ("Ideology," Mullins: 266).

One high profile development during this period was the emergence of Tokko, of the Japanese Special Higher Police. Their goal was to identify deviant beliefs and control them ("Ideology," Mullins: 267). Their initial targets until the 1930's were socialist and communist organizations. Once that situation was under control, they began to scrutinize Christians (attended lectures, services, prayer groups). Mark Mullins notes that the incline in religious arrests at that time coincide with a decline in political arrests ("Ideology," Mullins: 267). Figures show that between 1935 and 1943, twenty-two percent of total arrests were religious ("Ideology," Mullins: 268).

After controlling for political threats, Mullins suggests that the Tokko shifted focus to religious minorities partly to justify their own existence ("Ideology," Mullins: 267). They redefined what was considered acceptable by way of beliefs and practices ("Ideology," Mullins: 269). The Christian focus on world renewal came to be viewed as a threat of revolution. The first religious group to be investigated was Jehovah's Witness, in January 1939 ("Ideology," Mullins: 270). In June 1939 arrests started and by 1941, fifty-three Jehovah's Witnesses were charged with violations.

Perhaps the most "dangerous" element of the Christian belief system was the idea that God'skingdom would inevitably overturn present rule of the Emperor ("Ideology," Mullins: 272). Difficult questions were hurled at clergy members. For example, was the Emperor a sinner, too? If there is only one God, is the Emperor not also divine? Should the Emperor also become the servant of God ("Ideology," Mullins: 274)? All prisoners were pardoned by MacArthur and the Occupation government on November 13, 1945.The Peace Preservation Law was also lifted ("Ideology," Mullins: 275). Mullins ventures that this persecution was a response to a numerically insignificant and unthreatening, marginal group. This was merely the goverment's warning for others and a "reaffirmation of a national identity under fire" ("Ideology," Mullins: 277).

The Postwar Period marked a great many changes throughout Japanese religious and governmentalinstitutions, and marked the beginning of the third wave of Christian influence. Following the August 15, 1945 surrender and susequent arrival of the Occupation Forces ,in December 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces called for the Disestablishment of State Shinto ( Christian , Mullins: 21). Participation became voluntary, and the organization was stripped of all legal authority and government funding ( Christian , Mullins: 22).

The postwar Constitution of Japan (1947) provided religious freedom and the separation of church and state. The document also required all religious organizations to register as "'religious judical persons'" and were "placed on equal footing" ( Christian , Mullins: 22). Thus began the free market religious economy of Japan.

A major population shift occured in the 1950's and 1960's, because workers were needed in developing industries and efforts for economic recovery ( Christian , Mullins: 22). In 1950, 37.5% of the population was urban, and in 1980, that number climbed to 76.1% ( Christian , Mullins: 22). In this context, religion was no doubt a means of coping with crises and postwar devastation ( Christian , Mullins: 22).

During the early Postwar years, Christian churches gained a considerable following particularly among the educated middle class ( Christian , Mullins: 23). Prewar denominations were reestablished. General MacArthur called for "missionary reinforcements" in church recovery efforts and the rebuilding of Japan. Numerous new evangelical churches from Europe and North America emerged ( Christian , Mullins: 22). Between 1949 and 1953, 1500 new missionaries sprang up in Japan ( Christian , Mullins: 22). Membership leveled out in the 1950's, and this can be accredited to the expanded religious economyof Japan ( Christian , Mullins: 23). During this era of growth, the educated middle class was most receptive to missionary efforts. When wartime numbers are compared to postwar figures, Protestant membership doubled (from 190,000 to 400,000) and Roman Catholic membership grew over three times in size (from 100,000 to 323.599) ( Christian ., Mullins: 23).

The number of followers has remained fairly constant in recent years. Mullins states that Christian influences are significant today in Japan and have affected the education and social welfare ( Christian , Mullins: 23). Optimistic figures from a 1984 NHK Survey on Japanese Religious Consciousness show that 2% of Japanese people are Christians, and 12% the people have empathy towards Christianity. Despite acknowledgable influence, Mullins states that overall, mission churches have not found a receptive audience in Japan ( Christian , Mullins: 23).

As a latecomer to Japan's religious scheme, Christianity has maintained the label, "foreign religion" ( Christian , Mullins: 24). Within this scheme exist indigenous ("native orientated") amd nonindigenous sects ("foreign orientated"). Mullins uses three criteria for indigenous religions: self-government, self-support, and self-propagation ( Christian , Mullins: 27).Foreign-orientated churches still welcome foreign missionaries and Western churches serve as models for theological understanding and church polity and organization ( Christian , Mullins: 27). Some nonindigenous groups include the Anglican Church, the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran denominations, and the United Church of Christ (Methodist, Reformed, Presbyterian, Congregational) ( Christian , Mullins"27). Among these two groups beliefs vary slightly.

Today Christianity has the reputation of a demanding religion. The origin can be traced back tothe Meiji Period , when missionaries focused on the samurai class (most literate and intellectual class of that time) ( Christian , Mullins: 96). Generally speaking, Japanese tend to focus more on ritual than on doctrine, and few commit to one religion. It is common, in fact, for a person to participate in both Shinto and Buddhist rites yearly ( Christian , Mullins: 192).

On another note, in the Taisho Period (1912-1926), Shinto priests began to perform weddings modelled after Western church weddings. Prior to this, weddings did not include religious figures ( Christian , Mullins: 192). Currently, Christian churches are competing for this role in "the Japanese religious division of labor" ( Christian , Mullins: 192). According to a 1992 survey, 31% of weddings that take place in Japanare Christian. This can be partly accredited to the power of popular American culture as wellas weddings publicized by movie stars ( Christian , Mullins: 193). The Christian church uses weddings as a means to expose young people to the religious faith and an invaluable business enterprise. The money earned from weddings means money for clergy, churches, missionaries, and hotels with wedding chapels ( Christian , Mullins: 193).
Brief history of Shinto:
Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion. Starting about 500 BCE (or earlier) it was originally "an amorphous mix of nature worship, fertility cults, divination techniques, hero worship, and shamanism." 4 Its name was derived from the Chinese words "shin tao" ("The Way of the Gods") in the 8th Century CE. At that time:

The Yamato dynasty consolidated its rule over most of Japan.
Divine origins were ascribed to the imperial family.
Shinto established itself as an official religion of Japan, along with Buddhism.

The complete separation of Japanese religion from politics did not occur until just after World War II. The Emperor was forced by the American army to renounce his divinity at that time.

Unlike most other religions, Shinto has no real founder, no written scriptures, no body of religious law, and only a very loosely-organized priesthood.



Shinto beliefs:
Shinto creation stories tell of the history and lives of the "Kami" (deities). Among them was a divine couple, Izanagi-no-mikoto and Izanami-no-mikoto, who gave birth to the Japanese islands. Their children became the deities of the various Japanese clans. Amaterasu Omikami (Sun Goddess) was one of their daughters. She is the ancestress of the Imperial Family and is regarded as the chief deity. Her shrine is at Ise. Her descendants unified the country. Her brother, Susano came down from heaven and roamed throughout the earth. He is famous for killing a great evil serpent.
The Kami are the Shinto deities. The word "Kami" is generally translated "god" or "gods." However, the Kami bear little resemblance to the gods of monotheistic religions. There are no concepts which compare to the Christian beliefs in the wrath of God, his omnipotence and omni-presence, or the separation of God from humanity due to sin. There are numerous other deities who are conceptualized in many forms: Those related to natural objects and creatures, from "food to rivers to rocks." 2
Guardian Kami of particular areas and clans
Exceptional people, including all but the last of the emperors.
Abstract creative forces

They are seen as generally benign; they sustain and protect the people. 9

About 84% of the population of Japan follow two religions: both Shinto and Buddhism. As in much of Asia, Christianity is very much a minority religion. 12 Fewer than 1% of Japanese adults are Christians. Buddhism first arrived in Japan from Korea and China during the 6th through 8th centuries CE. The two religions share a basic optimism about human nature, and for the world. Within Shinto, the Buddha was viewed as another "Kami". Meanwhile, Buddhism in Japan regarded the Kami as being manifestations of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Most weddings are performed by Shinto priests; funerals are performed by Buddhist priests.
Shinto does not have as fully developed a theology as do most other religions. It does not have its own moral code. Shintoists generally follow the code of Confucianism.
Their religious texts discuss the "High Plain of Heaven" and the "Dark Land" which is an unclean land of the dead, but give few details of the afterlife.
Ancestors are deeply revered and worshipped.
All of humanity is regarded as "Kami's child." Thus all human life and human nature is sacred.
Believers revere "musuhi", the Kamis' creative and harmonizing powers. They aspire to have "makoto", sincerity or true heart. This is regarded as the way or will of Kami.
Morality is based upon that which is of benefit to the group. "Shinto emphasizes right practice, sensibility, and attitude." 2
There are "Four Affirmations"in Shinto:
Tradition and the family: The family is seen as the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved. Their main celebrations relate to birth and marriage.
Love of nature: Nature is sacred; to be in contact with nature is to be close to the Gods. Natural objects are worshipped as sacred spirits.
Physical cleanliness: Followers of Shinto take baths, wash their hands, and rinse out their mouth often.
"Matsuri": The worship and honor given to the Kami and ancestral spirits.

The desire for peace, which was suppressed during World War II, has been restored.



Shinto practices:
Shinto recognizes many sacred places: mountains, springs, etc.
Each shrine is dedicated to a specific Kami who has a divine personality and responds to sincere prayers of the faithful. When entering a shrine, one passes through a Tori a special gateway for the Gods. It marks the demarcation between the finite world and the infinite world of the Gods.
In the past, believers practiced "misogi,", the washing of their bodies in a river near the shrine. In recent years they only wash their hands and wash out their mouths in a wash basin provided within the shrine grounds.
Believers respect animals as messengers of the Gods. A pair of statues of "Koma-inu" (guard dogs) face each other within the temple grounds.
Shrine ceremonies, which include cleansing, offerings, prayers, and dances are directed to the Kami.
Kagura are ritual dances accompanied by ancient musical instruments. The dances are performed by skilled and trained dancers. They consist of young virgin girls, a group of men, or a single man.
Mamori are charms worn as an aid in healing and protection. They come in many different forms for various purposes.
An altar, the "Kami-dana" (Shelf of Gods), is given a central place in many homes.
Seasonal celebrations are held at spring planting, fall harvest, and special anniversaries of the history of a shrine or of a local patron spirit. A secular, country-wide National Founding Day is held on FEB-11 to commemorate the founding of Japan; this is the traditional date on which the first (mythical) emperor Jinmu ascended the throne in 660 BCE. Some shrines are believed to hold festivities on that day. Other festivals include: JAN 1-3 Shogatsu (New Year); MAR-3 Hinamatsuri (Girls' festival); MAY-5 Tango no Sekku (Boys' festival); JUL-7 Hoshi Matsuri (Star festival).
Followers are expected to visit Shinto shrines at the times of various life passages. For example, the Shichigosan Matsuri involves a blessing by the shrine Priest of girls aged three and seven and boys aged five. It is held on NOV-15.
Many followers are involved in the "offer a meal movement," in which each individual bypasses a breakfast (or another meal) once per month and donates the money saved to their religious organization for international relief and similar activity.
Origami ("Paper of the spirits"): This is a Japanese folk art in which paper is folded into beautiful shapes. They are often seen around Shinto shrines. Out of respect for the tree spirit that gave its life to make the paper, origami paper is never cut.



Forms of Shinto:
Shinto exists in four main forms or traditions:

Koshitsu Shinto (The Shinto of the Imperial House): This involves rituals performed by the emperor, who the Japanese Constitution defines to be the "symbol of the state and of the unity of the people." The most important ritual is Niinamesai, which makes an offering to the deities of the first fruits of each year's grain harvest. Male and female clergy (Shoten and Nai-Shoten) assist the emperor in the performance of these rites.
Jinja (Shrine) Shinto: This is the largest Shinto group. It was the original form of the religion; its roots date back into pre-history. Until the end of World War II, it was closely aligned with State Shinto. The Emperor of Japan was worshipped as a living God. Almost all shrines in Japan are members of Jinja Honcho, the Association of Shinto Shrines. It currently includes about 80,000 shrines as members. The association urges followers of Shinto
"To be grateful for the blessings of Kami and the benefits of the ancestors, and to be diligent in the observance of the Shinto rites, applying oneself to them with sincerity. brightness, and purity of heart."
"To be helpful to others and in the world at large through deeds of service without thought of rewards, and to seek the advancement of the world as one whose life mediates the will of Kami."
"To bind oneself with others in harmonious acknowledgment of the will of the emperor, praying that the country may flourish and that other peoples too may live in peace and prosperity." 5

Kyoha (Sectarian) Shinto (aka Shuha Shinto): This consists of 13 sects which were founded by individuals since the start of the 19th century. Each sect has its own beliefs and doctrines. Most emphasize worship of their own central deity; some follow a near-monotheistic religion.
Minzoku (Folk) Shinto This is not a separate Shinto group; it has no formal central organization or creed. It is seen in local rural practices and rituals, e.g. small images by the side of the road, agriculture rituals practiced by individual families, etc. A rural community will often select a layman annually, who will be responsible for worshiping the local deity.

These four forms are closely linked. Shinto is a tolerant religion which accepts the validity of other religions. It is common for a believer to pay respects to other religions, their practices and objects of worship.

Estimates of the number of adherents are hopelessly unreliable. Some sources give numbers in the range of 2.8 to 3.2 million. One states that 40% of Japanese adults follow Shinto; that would account for about 50 million adherents. Others state that about 86% of Japanese adults follow a combination of Shinto and Buddhism; that would put the number of followers of Shinto at 107 million.

One source estimates 1000 followers of Shinto in North America. The Canadian Census (1991) recorded only 445 in Canada.

Essentially all followers of Shinto are Japanese. It is difficult for a foreigner to embrace Shintoism. Unlike most other religions, there is no book to help a person learn about the religion. It is transmitted from generation to generation by experiencing the rituals together as a group
The importance of faith/belief statements:
We feel that every denomination, para-church organization, religious group, and religious web site should consider creating a statement of belief or faith and displaying it prominently. This is particularly important among Christian groups who may use the term "Christian" to refer to only the Roman Catholic Church, or only to Evangelical Protestantism, or to the full range of Christian denominations and beliefs, or to some other subset of the religion. Quite often, when we visit a Christian web site for the first time, we have to search around among its articles to find out exactly what part of the total religion of Christianity they serve.

That said, the following is our attempt at a statement of belief.



OCRT Statement of Belief:
We are a multi-faith group. As of 2006-JAN, we consist of one Atheist, Agnostic, Christian, Wiccan and Zen Buddhist. Thus, the OCRT staff lack agreement on almost all theological matters: belief in a supreme being, the nature of God, interpretation of the Bible and other holy texts, whether life after death exists and what form it takes, etc.

We do believe:

In the inherent worth of every person. People are worthy of respect, support, and caring simply because they are human.
In working towards a culture that is relatively free of discrimination on the basis of gender, race, sexual orientation, national origin, degree of ability, age, etc.
In the sanctity of the human person. We oppose the use of torture and cruel or unusual punishment including the death penalty.
In the importance of democracy within religious, political and other structures.
In the separation of church and state; and the freedoms of speech, association, and expression.
That the systems of truth in the field of morals, ethics, and religious belief that we have studied are not absolute: they vary by culture, by religion, and over time.
In the generally positive influence that most religions have had on their followers and on society.
In the importance of individual believers determining evil influences and policies within their chosen faith group, and advocate for their correction.
In the importance of education. We believe that people are not truly educated unless they have studied at least the world's major religions and ethical systems. They need to learn of the good and bad impacts they have had on society.


We will attempt to overcome our biases on each topic that we describe, by explaining each point of view carefully, respectfully and objectively. To this end, we have many of our essays reviewed by persons familiar with the issues who represent all sides of each topic. We encourage readers to Email us about any errors that they find. We do not regard any essay as fixed or complete.




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However, like the rest of North American society, we have not been able to reach a consensus about when human life, in the form of a spermatozoon and an ovum, becomes a human person deserving civil rights.
However we have not been able to reach a consensus about the age at which an individual should fully enjoy these freedoms. We also recognize that some of these freedoms should have limits. For example, we do not feel that, in most cases, parents should be allowed to let their children die if medical treatment will assure a cure. We do not feel that individuals should be free to advocate genocide or yell "fire" in a crowded theatre.
Exceptions are a handful of destructive cults which have had an overall negative effect.
They need to understand the religious sources that inspired Gandhi, Albert Schweitzer, and Mother Teresa to commit their life to the alleviation of human suffering. But they also need to learn the shadow side of religion: how religious beliefs have contributed to hatred, intolerance, oppression, discrimination, as well as mass murders and genocides in such places as Nazi Germany, Bosnia, East Timor, Kosovo, Northern Ireland, the Middle East, Sudan and countless other countries.




BUDDHISM
...based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama


Quotations:
"Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future: it transcends a personal God, avoids dogmas and theology; it covers both the natural & spiritual, and it is based on a religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity" A widely cited, but spurious quotation attributed to Albert Einstein 1
"The greatest achievement is selflessness.
The greatest worth is self-mastery.
The greatest quality is seeking to serve others.
The greatest precept is continual awareness.
The greatest medicine is the emptiness of everything.
The greatest action is not conforming with the worlds ways.
The greatest magic is transmuting the passions.
The greatest generosity is non-attachment.
The greatest goodness is a peaceful mind.
The greatest patience is humility.
The greatest effort is not concerned with results.
The greatest meditation is a mind that lets go.
The greatest wisdom is seeing through appearances." Atisha.
"If you live the sacred and despise the ordinary, you are still bobbing in the ocean of delusion." Lin-Chi.
"Aware of the suffering caused by the destruction of life, I vow to cultivate compassion and learn ways to protect lives of people, animals, plants, and minerals. I am determined not to kill, not to let others kill, and not to condone any killing in the world, in my thinking, and in my way of life.” Ven. Thich Nhat Hanh.



Overview:
Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, being exceeded in numbers only by Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. It was founded in Northern India by the first known Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama. In 535 BCE, he attained enlightenment and assumed the title Lord Buddha (one who has awakened)

As Buddhism expanded across Asia, it evolved into two main forms, which evolved largely independently from each other:

Theravada Buddhism (sometimes called Southern Buddhism; occasionally spelled Therevada) "has been the dominant school of Buddhism in most of Southeast Asia since the thirteenth century, with the establishment of the monarchies in Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos."
Mahayana Buddhism (sometimes called Northern Buddhism) is largely found in China, Japan, Korea, Tibet and Mongolia.

To which might be added:

Tibetan Buddhism, which developed in isolation from Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism because of the remoteness of Tibet.

Since the late 19th century:

Modern Buddhism has emerged as a truly international movement. It started as an attempt to produce a single form of Buddhism, without local accretions, that all Buddhists could embrace.



Topics covered in this section:
A brief overview of the Buddha's life

Core Buddhist beliefs A summary of Buddhism


Comparison of Buddhism with Christianity

Buddhist traditions in the East and West Mahayana tradition (Northern Buddhism)
Theravada Buddhism (Southern Buddhism; being written)
Tibetan Buddhism (being written)
Zen Buddhism (Being written)


In this web site's section on Christianity, we have attempted to describe the full diversity of beliefs taught by various wings of Christianity. Unfortunately, this might lead our readers to believe that there are few core beliefs that most Christian denominations accept in common.

The Cardinal Doctrines of Christianity are those beliefs which most denominations accept as forming the foundational teachings of Christianity. Many, perhaps most Christian faith groups feel that all Christians should believe each of these beliefs. Some groups would classify anyone as a non-Christian if they rejected even one belief on their own list of Cardinal Doctrines.

There appears to be a general consensus by conservative and some mainline Christian faith groups that a list of core beliefs might include:

The Trinity,
The deity of Jesus,
Jesus' bodily resurrection,
Jesus' atonement,
Personal salvation by grace,
The inerrancy of the Bible
God's inspiration of the Bible's authors,
The virgin birth, and
The anticipated second coming of Jesus.

But there does not appear to be an agreed upon single list that most Christian faith groups accept as "cardinal doctrines."

It is perhaps ironic that if one considers the very earliest Christian movement -- the Jewish Christians in Jerusalem under the leadership of James the "brother" of Jesus and in the period immediately after Jesus' execution before the arrival of Paul -- they might not be considered Christian by today's standards. That group apparently did not believe in the Trinity, the deity of Jesus, salvation by grace, or the virgin birth. They expected that Jesus' second coming would occur sometime in the first century CE, not two millennia later.



Cardinal doctrines according to the Niagara Bible Conference:
The Bible Conference of Conservative Christians at Niagara, initially known as the Believers' Meeting for Bible Study, was organized in 1868 and met annually from 1883 to 1897 at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada. In 1878 they created the "Niagara Creed" -- a list of fourteen fundamental points of Christian belief.

Among the fourteen points, the five principal beliefs were:

The verbal and plenary inspiration of the Bible,
The total depravity of man, a Calvinist doctrine.
The necessity of being born again in order to achieve salvation,
Substitutionary atonement, and
Premillennial return of Christ.

These were later discussed in The Fundamentals -- a series of pamphlets published between 1910 and 1915. From these pamphlets, the term "Fundamentalism" developed; before that time, Fundamentalists were referred to simply as conservatives. 10,11



A conflict over cardinal doctrines:
In 1910, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the USA (PCUSA) derived the following essential tenets from the Westminister Confession of Faith. This is the foundational document that they share with other Reform denominations:

The inerrancy of Scripture.
The virgin birth
The substitutionary atonement
Jesus' bodily resurrection
The miracles generated by Jesus were authentic.

In 1916 and 1923, the General Assembly ruled that all ordination candidates had to agree with all of the above beliefs to avoid rejection by the denomination. A Fundamentalist / Modernist split occurred in the denomination that focused around this requirement for ordination. Some ministers suggested that the Bible was not necessarily inerrant on matters of science and history. Others believed that there were other valid principles by which the functioning of the atonement could be explained.

Debate reached a fever pitch, much like the conflict over ordination of women and ordination of gays and lesbians in loving committed relationships were to generate conflict within some denominations in later decades.

Some liberals in the denomination met at the Auburn Seminary in northern New York state in 1924 and agreed on the Auburn Affirmation. It stated, in part:

"...we are united in believing that these are not the only theories allowed by the Scriptures and our standards as explanations of these facts and doctrines of our religion, and that all who hold to these facts and doctrines, whatever theories they may employ to explain them, are worthy of all confidence and fellowship. 8

It asserted that Presbyterians at the time should:

"Safeguard liberty of thought and teaching of its ministers";
Prohibit restricting the church to rigid interpretations of scripture and doctrine; and
Refuse to rank ecclesiastical authority above the conscience swayed by the [Holy] Spirit. 8

That document prompted the 1925 General Assembly to form a Special Theological Commission "to study the present spiritual condition of our Church and the causes making for unrest....to the end that the purity, peace and unity and progress of the Church may be assured." Their report influenced delegates to the 1927 General Assembly to institute a type of local option within the denomination. They declared that it is the individual presbyteries, not the General Assembly, which would determine what their clergy must affirm theologically. A schism occurred later when Fundamentalist members left the PCUSA to form the Orthodox Presbyterian Church in America under leader William Jennings Bryan. 9. A later schism happened later over female ordination. There is a concern that a similar schism may happen in the future to Presbyterian, Methodist and Episcopalian denominations over issues related to homosexuality.



Recent listings of cardinal doctrines by various para-church organizations:
The Christian Research Institute lists:
The authority of Scripture.
The Trinity
Man is a physical and spiritual being adversely affected by sin.
Christ is fully God and fully man who was sent to save humanity.
The church is God's ordained institution headed by Christ.

Living by the Word differentiates between: Five "Essential Christian Doctrines" which one must believe in order to be saved
The deity of Jesus Christ.
Jesus' bodily resurrection from the dead.
The Trinity.
Christ's vicarious atonement for man's sin.
Salvation by grace alone through faith alone.

"Cardinal Christian Doctrines" which may not be required for salvation, but which are extremely important:
The Virgin Birth
Inerrancy of Scripture
The second coming of Christ 1


Lamb & Lion Ministries lists five "Cardinal Doctrines of the Christian Faith:"
The Bible is the divinely inspired inerrant Word of God.
The Virgin Birth.
Jesus' bodily resurrection.
Salvation is a "free gift of God's grace" obtained by trusting Jesus as Lord and Savior.
The deity of Jesus Christ. 2

The Congregational Holiness Church lists as the "cardinal Christian doctrines" that they hold in common with most other Christian denominations:
The Trinity.
The inspiration of the Scriptures.
The Virgin Birth.
Jesus' bodily resurrection.
The second coming of Christ.
They also hold a key belief that is generally restricted to Charismatic and Pentecostal denominations: the "Baptism of the Holy Ghost with the initial evidence of speaking in other tongues..." 3

Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (CARM) lists four beliefs of Christianity which were declared "by scripture to be essential:"
The deity of Christ. including belief in the Trinity, monotheism, and Jesus as both God and man.
Salvation by grace.
Jesus' bodily resurrection.
The Gospels' teaching that "Jesus is God in flesh, who died for sins, rose from the dead, and freely gives the gift of eternal life to those who believe." 4

The Moorings has a study in Bible doctrine which lists basic Christian doctrines as:
Inerrancy of the Bible.
The Incarnation.
Jesus is both God and man.
The personhood and deity of the Holy Spirit.
The Trinity.
Heaven. 5

Online Christian Discipleship School has a Bible study on "Basic Doctrine of Christianity." They list:
The Trinity.
The inspiration of the Bible.
God created humans in his image and deserves our love and obedience.
Sin entered the world through Adam.
The atonement.
The resurrection.
Salvation through trusting Jesus.
Spirit possession of believers by Jesus. 6

Marty Rothwell, an author on a Roman Cathollic site "Christ's Faithful People," suggests that prior to the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th century, all Christians were expected to believe in many key doctrines.

Some of these are still shared by most Protestants:
"God the Son is of the same substance and nature as God the Father."
The Trinity.
Jesus is fully God and fully human.
However, there are also beliefs not shared by most Protestants, or not shared to the same extent:

The Body and Blood of Christ are present in the Eucharist.
The Apostolic Succession.
Beliefs are grounded in both the Bible and church tradition.
The Holy Spirit guides the Church away from error.
The effects of baptism.
Believers are saved by Grace and faith.
Salvation can achieved and later lost.
Baptism of infants.
The Deuterocanonical books / Apocrypha form an integral part of the Bible.
Clergy are restricted to males.
The Pope is the head of the Christian church.
Canonization and veneration of saints.
Effectiveness of the prayers of deceased saints.
Confession of sins to a priest.
Penance is needed after sinning.
Purgatory as the destination of many persons after death.
Prayers for the dead are effective.
Seven sacraments of: Baptism, Confirmation, Confession, Communion, Marriage, Holy Orders, and Extreme Unction.
Veneration of the Virgin Mary.
Liturgical worship.
Images are useful aids to worship. 7




Links to key doctrines of Christianity:
This web site has essays on most of the topics that are frequently mentioned above as cardinal doctrines:

Atonement, "...the central tenet of Christianity"
Biblical inerrancy
God's inspiration of the biblical authors
Heaven and Hell
Jesus' bodily resurrection,
Criteria for salvation.
Origin of sin: Does Genesis 3 represent the fall or rise of humanity?
The second coming of Christ and the end of the world as we know it
The virgin birth

To which we would add another belief that runs as a frequently appearing theme throughout the Bible, but is almost never mentioned in sermons or books on theology or apologetics:

The transferability of sins from the guilty to the innocent

We plan to write other essays in the future which deal with the Trinity, the deity of Jesus, Jesus as God and man, the incarnation, and possession by indwelling spirits.


Quotations about religious change:
"We are in a transition between a new consciousness and old definitions. The new consciousness will win but as with every human struggle to emerge from ignorance, there will be casualties long after the issue is decided." Retired Episcopal bishop John Shelby Spong speaking about same-sex marriage. 1
"The hope of civilization itself hangs on the defeat of ***** suffrage." A statement by a prominent 19th-century southern Presbyterian pastor, cited by Rev. Jack Rogers, former moderator of the Presbyterian Church (USA).
"On each of these issues, at one point the church had near unanimity of opinion and then, over time and painfully, changed its mind to almost the exact opposite view." Jack Rogers. referring to human slavery, restricting roles open to women, and restricting homosexual rights. 2
"...ye should earnestly contend for the faith which was once delivered unto the saints." From Jude 1:3: Christian Scriptures, King James Version.
"If a man also lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them." Leviticus 20:13, Hebrew Scriptures, King James Version.
"It is grounded in the old Jewish understanding that women are less worthy than men. For a man to have sex with another man 'as with a woman' insults the other man, because women are to be treated as property." Rev. Jill. Nelson, pastor of the Sunshine Cathedral Metropolitan Community Church, commenting on Leviticus 20:13: 3



About establishing and changing religious beliefs:
We regard this as the most important section of our web site. That is why so many internal hyperlinks lead here.

Using Christianity as an example, we describe how denominations and individuals decide what to believe, and how they change those beliefs over time.

Concerning beliefs: About 75% of North American identify themselves as Christians. But Christianity is composed of tens of thousands of faith groups. They generally agree on what the Bible says. They cannot agree on what the Bible means. As a result, while some groups do share certain cardinal doctrines, they still teach a wide diversity of beliefs on matters related to race, gender, human sexuality and other topics. Each group is sincerely confident that they know the will of God, that they are following the true meaning of the Bible, that they know the will of God, and that other faith groups are in error.
Concerning change: Most religions do not readily accept change. Many faith groups only alter beliefs after great agony, internal conflict, and even schism and violence. Sometimes it takes centuries to complete the process.

If the general public realized how extensive these changes -- and even reversals of teachings --have been, they might have a different understanding of current religiously controversial topics. They might anticipate future changes and be able to adapt more easily to them as they unfold.

Essays in this section discusses how religions changed -- and are changing -- beliefs in three areas: slavery, the status of women and equal rights for homosexuals during the past two centuries. The processes of change in these three topics are amazingly similar.

We have narrowed the focus of this section to:

Christianity mainly because almost 75% of North American adults identify with this religion, and because most non-Christians in the U.S. and Canada have at least some familiarity with the religion. Much of the information applies also to Judaism, Islam, and to other religions active in North America.
These three topics because they are arguably the most important changes in North American society over the past two centuries



www.globaled.org/japanproject/lessons/lesson14.php

Answer 2

Maybe Shinto?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto

Answer 3

That's very convenient of you. Asking your school questions here. Sorry, no answers for you. You really should be at the library doing your own research.

Answer 4

Buddhism. not shinto!!! it kicked in way way after, and its new form of buddism, they got rid of all the religion other than that that was believed in every where and had differnt gods. this was to unify japanese as one big nation. they used religion to keep people togeather. yes buddhism is still the majer religion in japan, but not like here, people dont pray every night, they dont really follow the religion, they dont really care about buddhism, but they do funerals and follow new year things in buddhism ways.

Answer 5

2

Answer 6

1

Answer 7

Look up Shintoism and Taoism.

Answer 8

Not sure, sorry I can't help!

http://www.conservativeworld.us/