What are the advantages and disadvantages of Non-Participative, Time Sampling and Event Sampling Observations?

Question

1 advantage and 1 disadvantages if possible please. (This is in terms of child observations)

Answer 1

I hope this might help you answer-

Research Methods

A brief guide to observational techniques

Note

Although this guide was originally written as part of a handbook of educational research techniques, the content is equally relevant to research in other areas including information management.

Introduction

Direct observation of educational settings has become a popular approach to educational research in recent years. Croll attributes this to a change in the focus of educational research away from the ‘black box’ model of research, considering only the inputs and outputs of the education process, to a ‘glass box’ model whereby consideration of the teaching process itself is of primary interest.

In this guide we take an overview of the two main classes of observational technique, discuss some of the issues surrounding them and outline guidelines for producing an observational study.

Classes of observational technique

Systematic observation

Definition: "the process whereby an observer or a group of observers devise a systematic set of rules for recording and classifying … events"

Key characteristics: said to be objective

normally gathers quantitative, numeric, data for statistical analysis

observer is non-participative

Ethnographic observation

Definition: the process whereby "the observer ... attempts to arrive at an understanding of the meaning of social relations and social processes … for the subjects being observed"

Key characteristics: subjective

observation from ‘within’

anonymity or ‘cover’ for observer is often a prerequisite

observer is a participant in the process being observed

normally gathers qualitative data in the form of field notes and episodic accounts

Systematic v. ethnographic

Cohen and Manion suggest that the preferred method of observation, non-participative (systematic) or participative (ethnographic) is to a large degree determined by the nature of the setting. They have adapted work by Bailey (1978) in defining settings on two continuous dimensions:

* degree of structure imposed by the observer - from the unstructured to structured (unsystematic to systemic to use Croll’s terms)
* degree of structure in the observational setting - from the natural workplace or social setting to the artificial setting of the ‘laboratory’.

Observational studies which tend towards unstructured, natural settings are more disposed to participant observation, whilst non-participant observation tends to work best in structured, artificial settings. Clearly, in an unstructured, natural setting it is difficult for an observer to be covert and non-participative. In the artificiality of the structured laboratory observation, perhaps with the added complication of sophisticated data recording equipment it is better for the observer not to be participative in the process being observed.

Critics of the systematic approach to observation suggest that the objectivity of the quantitative, non-participative approach is "largely spurious and that by concentrating on that which can be classified and measured, such techniques miss out that which is most important in classrooms" . Critics of the ethnographic approach, on the other hand, often describing the qualitative approach as "subjective, biased, impressionistic, idiosyncratic and lacking in ... precise quantifiable measures" .

Purposes of systematic classroom observation

The general purpose "of systematic classroom observation is to provide an accurate description of selected features of activities in classrooms" . Specifically, purposes include:

* to give a descriptive overview of certain features of the educational system
* to measure the effectiveness of different approaches to teaching
* to monitor the impact of one aspect of classroom process on another or against standard measures of, for example, attitude, or attainment
* to monitor the effect of aspects of classroom process on individuals
* to enable teachers to monitor their own performance.

When to use observational techniques

* when exploring the "interpretive, subjective dimensions of educational phenomena"
* when the data being collected is non-verbal
* when an extended period of time allows for the development of relationships between observer and observed and observation in a more natural setting
* when the unit of observation can be clearly defined, eg child, student, class, community etc

Steps to observational research

Walker cites work by Boehm and Weinberg (1977) giving a step by step set of questions to ask when designing and implementing a systematic observation. These are summarised here. For full details, complete with a worked example, refer to pages 120-128 of the text.

* What is the nature of the problem or the question that you are confronted with? Define the problem and the related behaviours clearly.
* Why would systematic observations be helpful in dealing with this problem or answering the question?
* What are the relevant characteristics of the setting in which the behaviour will be observed?
o What constraints does the physical setting have on possible behaviours?
o What is the physical arrangement of the various components of the setting that might need to be considered?
o What people will be present in the setting? What characteristics of the individuals or group being observed need to be considered?
* Given the particular focus of your observations and given your knowledge of the problem area, what is the universe of behaviours that you intend to consider?
* What units of behaviour or clearly defined categories of behaviour will you focus on? In determining your list of categories for classifying observable behaviour, consider whether a previously developed observational schedule might be used.
o Decide whether a sign or category system is more appropriate to your problem: Are the categories or signs employed mutually exclusive? Is the listing of the categories or signs exhaustive of the universe of behaviours you wish to consider?
* What sampling procedure (time or event) will most effectively enable you to record representative observations?
o Will all the people in the setting be observed, or will you select a representative sample?
o How frequently across time should you observe so that your conclusions have adequate observational support?
o To what extent does the subject of the observation need to be viewed in a variety of settings and activities in order to deal adequately with the particular problem or question?
* How confident are you that your observation schedule facilitates reliable observations? How might you verify this?
* What inferences or conclusions can you make on the basis of your collected observational data?
* Have you realised the goal for which your observations have been made? If not, can you redefine your problem more clearly and focus on different behaviours, and from a different perspective?
* Did you consider the role that methods of inquiry other than systematic observation might play in dealing with your problem?
See http://www.business.tvu.ac.uk/~laphama/docs/PG%20RM%20Obseravational%20research.htm
for more info

Answer 2

James Brown Been sampled by Boogie Down Productions, Ed O.G. & Da Bulldogs, DJ Jazzy Jeff, Gang Starr, Notorious B.I.G., Nas, A Tribe Called Quest, Pete Rock, Slum Village, Papoose, Guilty Simpson & many more... Bob James Been sampled by Ghostface, Pete & CL, Count Bass D, Digable Planets, Arrested Development, Snoop Dogg, ED O.G., Group Home, Gang Starr, De La Soul, Xzibit, Onyx, Nas, Rakim, Run-DMC, The Roots & many more... David Axelrod Been sampled by Eminem, Jurassic 5, Madlib, Mos Def, Gang Starr, Ghostface, Cypress Hill, Black Moon, Deda, Fat Joe, Artifacts, Busta Rhymes, InI, Slum Village, Quasimoto, Lil' Wayne & many more...