method of mining and purifying if applicable to titanium?

Answer 1

The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major steps: reduction of titanium ore into "sponge", a porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, whereby an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip and tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products.

Because the metal reacts with air at high temperatures it cannot be produced by reduction of its dioxide. Titanium metal is therefore produced commercially by the Kroll process, a complex and expensive batch process. (The relatively high market value of titanium is mainly due to its processing, which sacrifices another expensive metal, magnesium.[5]) In the Kroll process, the oxide is first converted to chloride through carbochlorination, whereby chlorine gas is passed over red-hot rutile or ilmenite in the presence of carbon to make TiCl4. This is condensed and purified by fractional distillation and then reduced with 800 °C molten magnesium in an argon atmosphere.

A more recently developed method, the FFC Cambridge process,[23] may eventually replace the Kroll process. This method uses titanium dioxide powder (which is a refined form of rutile) as feedstock to make the end product which is either a powder or sponge. If mixed oxide powders are used, the product is an alloy manufactured at a much lower cost than the conventional multi-step melting process. The FFC Cambridge Process may render titanium a less rare and expensive material for the aerospace industry and the luxury goods market, and could be seen in many products currently manufactured using aluminium and specialist grades of steel.

Pure titanium dioxide may be prepared by grinding its mineral ore and mixing it with potassium carbonate and aqueous hydrofluoric acid. This yields potassium fluorotitanate (K2TiF6) which is extracted with hot water and decomposed with ammonia, producing an ammoniacal hydrated oxide. This in turn is ignited in a platinum vessel, to give the anhydrous oxide

Answer 2

"Even tap water invariably contains a variety of poisons such as chlorine, chloramine, asbestos, pesticides, fluoride, copper, mercury, and lead. The best way to remove all these contaminants is by distilling." "If you decide on bottled water, make sure it's distilled, (however), in the long run you'll save money if you clean your water at home. It's more convenient than hauling gallon jugs from the store. The 'gold standard' for purifying your water is a system that distills your water and filters it. You have the comfort of knowing there is no chlorine, fluoride, bacteria, viruses, pesticides, or lead. You get nothing but H2O." "Let me classify the nine kinds of water. They are hard water, raw water, boiled water, soft water, rain water, snow water, filtered water, de-ionized water, and distilled water. All are kinds of water - but remember this: only one of these nine kinds of water is good for you. Distilled water is water which has been turned into vapor, so that all its impurities are left behind. Then, by condensing, it is turned back to pure water. It is the only water which is pure - the only water free from all impurities".