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Question

The Relationship Between Test Anxiety, Sleep Habits, and
Self-Perceived Academic Competency
Introduction
¶1Self-perceived academic competency has been shown to be a significant contributor to the academic success of college students. Bandura (1986) defines self-perceived competency as “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (p. 10). It has been found by Lee and Babko (1994) that when in a difficult situation such as a college-type test, a person with a strong sense of self-perceived academic competency will devote more attention and effort to the task at hand, therefore trying harder and persisting longer, than will those who have lower levels of self-perceived competency.
¶2Self-perceived academic competency can be affected by a plethora of variables. In this study, the variables of test anxiety and sleep habits will be examined in relationship to college students’ selfperceived academic competency.
¶3Lewis (1970) defines anxiety as “an unpleasant emotion experienced as dread, scare, alarm, fright, trepidation, horror or panic” (p. 63). Test anxiety, then, is the debilitating experience of anxiety, as described by Lewis, during the preparation for a test or during the test itself. Although anxiety is often detrimental, it may be beneficial if it is not extreme. Simpson, Parker, and Harrison (1995) convey this through two well-known principles of anxiety: “A minimal amount of anxiety” (an optimal amount is more accurate) “can mobilize human beings to respond rapidly and efficiently,” while “excessive amounts of anxiety may foster poor response and sometimes inhibit response” (p. 700). Knox, Schacht, and Turner


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Test Anxiety 4
(1993) state that test anxiety can include performance anxiety and content (e.g., math) anxiety. Both of these make it hard for students to concentrate and perform adequately on tests. Knox et al. (1993) also recognize the consequences of poorly managed test anxiety. “Failure to manage test anxiety can result in failing courses, dropping out of school, a negative self-concept and a low earning potential” (p. 295).
¶4Research on test anxiety has identified three models that explain the origin of test anxiety: (1) The problem lies not in taking the test, but in preparing for the test. Kleijn, Van der Ploeg, and Topman (1994) have identified this as the learning-deficit model. According to this model, the student with high test anxiety tends to have or use inadequate learning or study skills while in the preparation stage of exam taking. (2) The second model is termed the interference model (Kleijn et al., 1994). The problem for people in this model is that during tests, individuals with test anxiety focus on task-irrelevant stimuli that negatively affect their performanceb (Sarason, 1975). The attention diverted from the task at hand can be categorized into two types, according to Sarason. The first type of distraction can be classified as physical and includes an increase in awareness of heightened autonomic activity (e.g., sweaty palms, muscle tension). The second type of distraction includes inappropriate cognitions, such as saying to oneself, “Others are finishing before me, so I must not know the material,” or “I’m stupid, I won’t pass.” The presence of either of these two task-irrelevant cognitions will affect the quality of a student’s performance. (3) The third model of test anxiety includes people who think they have prepared adequately for a test, but in reality, did not. These people question their abilities after the test, which creates anxiousness during the next test.
¶5Sleep patterns are believed to be more irregular among college students, and irregular sleep patterns are believed to affect both selfperceived academic competency and academic performance. Sleep, therefore, seems to be an important factor in a college student’s success and self-perceived ability. An optimal sleep pattern, as defined here, is one in which an individual goes to bed and wakes up at about the same time every day while allowing an adequate amount of time in each of the five stages of the sleep cycle. The function of the body that keeps our sleep patterns in this constant waking and sleeping cycle is called the circadian rhythm. During the night a person enters into and out of five different stages of sleep, the most
important being REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. When the circadian rhythm of a person’s sleep is thrown off, less time is spent in REM sleep (Lahey, 1995). People deprived of REM sleep are likely to experience irritability, inefficiency, and fatigue (Hobson, 1989; Webb & Bonnet, 1979). Furthermore, they are more likely to experience irritability and fatigue when switched from the day shift to the night shift rather than from the night shift to the day shift (Wilkinson, Allison, Feeney, & Kaminska, 1989). This phenomenon known as “jet lag” is consistent with our natural tendency to lengthen our circadian rhythms. For example, one experiment demonstrated that participants’ circadian rhythms continued even when they were isolated in constantly lighted chambers. However, their rhythms quickly changed to a twenty-five-hour cycle (Aschoff, 1981; Horne, 1988). This phenomenon suggests that college students are particularly prone to sleep deprivation because college students
are notorious for “cramming” information into their memories the night before a test. To do this, they stay up longer and wake up earlier than they usually would. The impact of sleep deprivation on academic performance is negative; consequently, it is hypothesized that students with poor sleep habits will have a lower level of selfperceived academic competency since each test is taken in a state marked by inefficient, irritable, or fatigued thinking.
¶6While there have been numerous studies on self-perceived competency and academic performance, on test anxiety and performance, and on sleep and performance, little direct information exists on the relationship among these variables taken together. It is believed that in our findings it will be shown that test anxiety and irregular sleep patterns will lower college students’ self-perceived academic competency.
Methods
Participants

¶7One hundred fifty-eight college students participated in the study. There were 89 first- and second-year students and 64 thirdand fourth-year students. Among the participants, there were 67 males and 89 females. Demographic data obtained from the participants included gender, age, year in school, major, and their
estimated current grade point average (GPA).
Instruments
¶8The Test Attitude Inventory (TAI), created by Spielberger (1980), was used to measure test anxiety. The TAI subscales measure self-reported worry and emotionality. The TAI contains twenty items that are situation-specific to academically related test situations and environments. A five-point Likert scale (5 represented “usually” and 1 represented “never”) was used to obtain the participants’ responses.
¶9To measure sleep habits, the Sleep Questionnaire constructed by Domino, Blair, and Bridges (1984) was used. The questionnaire contains fifty-four questions pertaining to various sleep and related behaviors. The same five-point Likert scale that was used for the TAI was used by this instrument as well. In addition, three closed-ended questions help reveal the approximate time of sleep onset, the approximate time of awakening, and whether or not the participants
take naps during the day.
¶10The College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES), created by Owen and Froman (1988), was administered to determine the degree of confidence participants believe they have in various academic settings (e.g., note taking during class or using the library). A fivepoint Likert Scale was also used here, where 5 represented “a lot of confidence,” and 1 represented “little confidence.” This scale consists of thirty-three questions covering a wide variety of academic settings and situations that are pertinent to the students’ overall academic self-competency rating. Owen and Froman (1988) found the alpha internal consistency of the CASES, in two different trials, to be .9 and .92.
Procedure
¶11Packets were prepared which contained a demographic data sheet, consent form, test anxiety inventory, CASES, and the sleep habits questionnaire, in that order. Next, professors in the selected classes were given information on the purpose of the study, shown the survey instruments, and told approximately how long it would take for students to complete the entire packet (20–30 minutes). We were invited to six different class meetings. The students were informed verbally that the purpose of the study was to examine the relationships between test anxiety, sleep habits, and self-perceived academic competency. The students were also informed that participation in the experiment was completely voluntary and that
their responses would be kept anonymous. The students who agreed to participate in the study signed a consent form. These students then filled out the demographic data and the four surveys. The participants were then thanked for their willingness to participate in the study.
Results
¶12The mean score for test anxiety was 52.67 (out of a possible 100), with a high score of 95 and a low score of 24. In order to see if differences existed between people with high test anxiety and low test anxiety, the participants’ test anxiety scores were divided into three levels (low, moderate, and high) and compared to the CASES using an ANOVA. Those people in the low test anxiety group scored 124.50 (a higher score indicates greater self-perceived academic competency) on the CASES. Those people in the moderate test anxiety group scored 113.75 on the CASES. Those people in the high test anxiety group scored 106.21 on the CASES. The p-value was found to be .001. This finding is represented in Figure 1. It was also found that there were significant differences between test anxiety groups and GPA (a measure of performance). The low test anxiety group reported having a 3.29 GPA, the group that reported moderate anxiety had a 3.13 GPA, and the group with high test anxiety reported having a 3.02 GPA. The p-value was found to be .05.
¶13Similarly, the sleep scores were also divided into three groups (bad sleep, moderate sleep, and good sleep) for the purpose of comparing mean differences. The mean sleep score was 130.28 (out of 200), with a high score of 163 and a low score of 90. The lower sleep scores represent better sleep habits. The people in the bad sleep group scored 110.42 on¶14 the CASES, the moderate sleepers scored 114.98 on the CASES, and the people in the good sleep group scored 119.33. This is represented in Figure 2.
¶15Furthermore, grade point averages were significantly different depending on which sleep group the student was associated with. Students in the bad sleep group reported having a 3.02 GPA, while students in the moderate sleep group reported having a 3.11 GPA. Also, those students who fell into the good sleep group reported having a 3.31 GPA. The p-value was found to be .03.
¶16Correlations were also figured for the following variables (shown in Table 1): quality of sleep habits, test anxiety, self-perceived academic competency, and GPA. It was found that the quality of sleep habits and test anxiety were negatively correlated at the –.26 level (p-value of .001). The quality of sleep habits was also found to be positively correlated with self perceived academic competency at the .19 level (p-value of .016). Additionally, it was found that the quality of sleep habits was positively correlated with GPA at the .18 level (p-value of .024). Test anxiety and self-perceived academic competency were negatively correlated at the –.41 level (p-value of .001). GPA and test anxiety were negatively correlated at the –.21 level (p-value of .01). Lastly, self-perceived academic competency and GPA were positively correlated at the .47 level (p-value of .001).
Discussion
¶17The findings presented indicate that bad sleep habits and high test anxiety negatively affect self-perceived academic competency, as was hypothesized. Additionally, it was found that low self-perceived academic competency negatively affected students’ GPA.
¶18Quality of sleep habits was found to be a factor in self-perceived academic competence. If college students do experience REM sleep deprivation more than the average population, then the findings of this study need to be passed on to college students. The findings in this study suggest that college students with poor sleep habits may perceive themselves as having lower academic competency. The study also showed that self-perceived academic competency was positively correlated to academic performance. Thus, according to Hobson (1989), Webb & Bonnet (1979), and this study, those college students who do have poor sleep habits will negatively affect their academic performance.
¶19It was also found that test anxiety and grade point average are negatively correlated, and that quality of sleep and grade point average are positively correlated. This finding, and the fact that quality of sleep and test anxiety are negatively related, suggest interrelationships among the variables test anxiety, sleep habits, selfperceived academic competency, and academic performance. This result highlights the fact that professors need to instruct their students on how to manage test anxiety. Students also need to be aware of the effects that poor sleep and low self-perceived academic competency have on academic performance. Thus, the phrase “I think I can, I think I can . . .” may be beneficial only if students reduce their test anxiety and develop better sleep habits. More research needs to be done to find other variables that affect self-perceived academic competence.
References
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Biological rhythms. New York: Plenum.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social
cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Domino, G., Blair, G., & Bridges, A. (1984). Subjective assessment of
sleep by sleep questionnaire. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 59,
163–170.
Hobson, J. A. (1989). Sleep. New York: Scientific American Library.
Horne, J. (1988). Why we sleep: The functions of sleep in humans and
other mammals. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kleijn, W. C., Van der Ploeg, H. M., & Topman, R. M. (1994). Cognition,
study habits, test anxiety, and academic performance.
Psychological Reports, 75, 1219–1226.
Knox, D., Schacht, C., & Turner, J. (1993). Virtual reality: A proposal
for treating test anxiety in college students. College Student
Journal, 27, 294–296.
Lahey, B. B. (1995). In M. Lange, S. Connors, A. Fuerste, K. M. Huinker-
Timp, & L. Fuller (Eds.), Psychology: An Introduction. Dubuque,
IA: Brown & Benchmark.
Lee, C., & Babko, P. (1994). Self-efficacy beliefs: Comparison of five
measures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 364–369.
Lewis, A. (1970). The ambiguous word “anxiety.” International Journal
of Psychiatry, 9, 62–79.
Owen, S. V., & Froman, R. D. (1988). Development of an academic self
efficacyscale. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
National Council on Measurement in Education, New Orleans, LA.
Sarason, I. G. (1975). Test anxiety and the self-disclosing coping model.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 148–152.
Simpson, M. L., Parker, P. W., & Harrison, A. W. (1995). Differential
performance on Taylor’s Manifest Anxiety Scale in black private
college freshmen, a partial report. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
80, 699–702.
Spielberger, C. D. (1980). Preliminary professional manual for the Test
Attitude Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Webb, W. B., & Bonnet, M. H. (1979). Sleep and dreams. In M. E. Meyer
(Ed.), Foundations of contemporary psychology. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Wilkinson, R., Allison, S., Feeney, M., & Kaminska, Z. (1989). Alertness
of night nurses: Two shift systems compared. Ergonomics, 32,
281–292.



References Pages—APA
Sources contributing directly to the paper are listed alphabetically on a separate page immediately after the body of the essay.
❍ Center the title (References) at the top of the page.
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❍ In the References list, capitalize only the first word and any proper names in the title of a book or article. Within a title, capitalize the first word after a colon.
❍ When you have two or more entries by the same author, list them by year of publication, from earliest to latest. If an author publishes two works in the same year, list them alphabetically by title and place a lowercase letter immediately after the year: (1998a).

What did you notice about the paper's style, organization, and tone? Do you think the paper is effective in presenting its research question? In writing this essay, what would you have done differently than this author?

Answer 1

I think it's a really good paper but it jumps around a lot, esp. in the beginning. The organization could be a lot tighter in the beginning and instead of jumping from competency to anxiety back to competency with a little about sleep in the middle, you could use some better transitions between sentences.

Answer 2

sounds good and a good paper. it is very wonderful but next time do ur own paper or piece

Answer 3

Sounds good!

Answer 4

do ur own paper.. its too much to read