Egyptian civilization?

Question

discuss how art evolved over time and how it was influenced by tools and technology from that time period.

Provide one specific example that illustrates the influence and evolution.

Answer 1

Ancient Egypt was a long-lived civilization in north-eastern Africa. It was concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River, reaching its greatest extension during the second millennium BC, which is referred to as the New Kingdom period. It reached broadly from the Nile Delta in the north, as far south as Jebel Barkal at the Fourth Cataract of the Nile. Extensions to the geographical range of ancient Egyptian civilization included, at different times, areas of the southern Levant, the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea coastline, the Sinai Peninsula and the Western Desert (focused on the several oases)

Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and a half millennia. It began with the incipient unification of Nile Valley polities around 3150 BC and is conventionally thought to have ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered and absorbed Ptolemaic Egypt as a state. This last, however, did not represent the first period of foreign domination; the Roman period was to witness a marked, if gradual transformation in the political and religious life of the Nile Valley, effectively marking the termination of independent civilizational development.

The civilization of ancient Egypt was based on a finely balanced control of natural and human resources, characterised primarily by controlled irrigation of the fertile Nile Valley; the mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions; the early development of an independent writing system and literature; the organization of collective projects; trade with surrounding regions in east / central Africa and the eastern Mediterranean; finally, military ventures that exhibited strong characteristics of imperial hegemony and territorial domination of neighbouring cultures at different periods. Motivating and organising these activities were a socio-political and economic elite that achieved social consensus by means of an elaborate system of religious belief under the figure of a (semi)-divine ruler (usually male) from a succession of ruling dynasties and which related to the larger world by means of polytheistic beliefs.

Answer 2

The Ancient Egyptians use of art that is found in temples and tombs,has helped Egyptologists and Archaeologists immensely with their understanding of the ancient culture.
Like many early civilisations and cultures the Egyptians relied heavily on art.For them it was far more than just decoration .
Their art existed in many forms.Statues,where the human form showed amazing definition of form and muscle.
Furniture was also highly decorated.
Both male and females of the ruling classes wore the most beautiful jewellery usually made of gold and inset with turquoise,lapis lazuli and other precious stones.Even the production of the fine almost transparent pleated linen for clothing was an art form.
Funerary art showed detailed depictions of the deceased as they passed through judgement to new life in the underworld.Votive art included statues and decorative wreaths.
During the New kingdom it became popular to include depictions of a liturgy called the Book of the Dead,The Book of Gates and the Book of Life and Death were also beautifully reproduced on the walls in tombs. Usually to honour a high official ,priest or the Pharaoh and his family members.
The Valley of the Kings contains many fantastically decorated tombs, depicting the life of the deceased.His passing,his ,judgement and journey to the underworld where he would enjoy a similar life to the one he had just left.
One of the most beautiful tombs is that of Queen Nefertari ,Queen of the great Ramses2.It is situated in the nearby Valley of the Queens.This tomb is now closed to the public due to the damage that has been done to the fragile painted plaster, due to hundreds upon hundreds of tourists passing through it. It is the acidic content of our breath and sweat that has been the culprit and tourist who just can't help touching the walls leave caustic fingerprints.
The artwork is exceptional but traditional of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings.
The exception of that of Thutmose's 2 whose tomb is decorated in almost cartoon like stick figures, a great deviation from other tombs of the same era.
The temples and complexes such as Karnak and Luxor show art other than votive or funerary art dedicated to the Gods.
There are great battle scenes depicting the battles and successes of the Pharaoh. These are often over exaggerated ,one could term it the first form of propaganda.However all are magnificent.
In Egyptian art the human form is greatly defined,males of importance are shown with the left foot striding forward,when depicted facing front on as in statuary.There was a defined pose for the Pharaoh and his Queen.A dead Pharaoh always was shown with the beard turned up at the end.
Males were depicted as a yellow/tan colour ,females white or very pale yellow.The dead wear depicted as being black.The God Ptah was green .
Gods and Goddess were also depicted in a side on style.Identified by their different headdresses and regalia. .
The style of depiction changed in only subtle ways from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Phonic era..Differences in the placement size of the ears and the depiction of the eyes being the two greatest deviations.
Statuary from the early Dynasties showed more square feature and body shape.
The Armana period of Arkenaton showed a totally different way of depicting the human body.The heads were shown to portray elongated skulls ,the faces quite hideous with long limbs , large thighs and swollen bodies.
This era broke from the past traditions and did not focus on the brave,heroic conquering Pharaoh but scenes of family life and realistic scenes of fish birds and other aspects of nature,most quite serene and beautiful.
Art entered the Egyptians life at all levels even hieroglyphs were a defined and developed form of picture graph.It was an integral part of their life,communication,story telling and worship.
Forms of art were made in all mediums,and the range diverse from the carving of great commemorative scenes on temple walls to the delicate filigree working of gold and precious jewels and pearls in a princess's jewellery
.Each piece of Ancient Egyptian art has its own story and is another piece of the enormous jigsaw that makes up the art of Ancient Egypt
I have done my best to try and cover as much as possible for you but the subject is immense as you may imagine.
I will just finish my answer to you by saying there were no forms of art found to be decorating the walls in the pyramids.
Also many of the outside art work on the temple is in great danger especially the wonderful temple of Seti1,that is under the control of a German team. Parts of the outstanding artwork is in the process of or has literally dropped off.
Now gone forever!

Answer 3

Pretty much everything was already done by the Ancient Egyptians, now hurry up with your homework!

Answer 4

Egyptian art was the first to present a person full-on, as if you were looking straight at them. Before Egyptian art it was side-view. Of course Egypt also had many different paints, colors and dyes. They had everything they needed for a thriving art culture, every kind of art from cloth (in types of clothing worn and different types of materials), metals (different types of metals, fantastic jewels, stone cutting, sculture, pyramids), paint, etc.

Answer 5

Do your own homework!

Answer 6

I'm not up for this...

Answer 7

Ancient Egypt was a long-lived civilization in north-eastern Africa. It was concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River, reaching its greatest extension during the second millennium BC, which is referred to as the New Kingdom period. It reached broadly from the Nile Delta in the north, as far south as Jebel Barkal at the Fourth Cataract of the Nile. Extensions to the geographical range of ancient Egyptian civilization included, at different times, areas of the southern Levant, the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea coastline, the Sinai Peninsula and the Western Desert (focused on the several oases)

Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and a half millennia. It began with the incipient unification of Nile Valley polities around 3150 BC and is conventionally thought to have ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered and absorbed Ptolemaic Egypt as a state. This last, however, did not represent the first period of foreign domination; the Roman period was to witness a marked, if gradual transformation in the political and religious life of the Nile Valley, effectively marking the termination of independent civilizational development.

The civilization of ancient Egypt was based on a finely balanced control of natural and human resources, characterised primarily by controlled irrigation of the fertile Nile Valley; the mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions; the early development of an independent writing system and literature; the organization of collective projects; trade with surrounding regions in east / central Africa and the eastern Mediterranean; finally, military ventures that exhibited strong characteristics of imperial hegemony and territorial domination of neighbouring cultures at different periods. Motivating and organising these activities were a socio-political and economic elite that achieved social consensus by means of an elaborate system of religious belief under the figure of a (semi)-divine ruler (usually male) from a succession of ruling dynasties and which related to the larger world by means of polytheistic beliefs.

History
Main article: History of Ancient Egypt
Dynasties of Pharaohs
in ancient Egypt
Predynastic Egypt
Protodynastic Period
Early Dynastic Period
1st 2nd
Old Kingdom
3rd 4th 5th 6th
First Intermediate Period
7th 8th 9th 10th
11th (Thebes only)
Middle Kingdom
11th (All Egypt)
12th 13th 14th
Second Intermediate Period
15th 16th 17th
New Kingdom
18th 19th 20th
Third Intermediate Period
21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th
Late Period
26th 27th 28th
29th 30th 31st
Graeco-Roman Period
Alexander the Great
Ptolemaic dynasty
Roman

Archaeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society extends far into prehistory (see Predynastic Egypt). The Nile River, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile during the Pleistocene. Traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases.

Along the Nile, in the 10th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering peoples using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society. There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC.

By about 6000 BC, organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. At this time, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large buildings. Mortar was in use by 4000 BC. The Predynastic Period continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada culture. Some authorities however place the start of the Predynastic Period earlier, in the Lower Paleolithic.

Between 5500 and 3100 BC, during Egypt's Predynastic Period, small settlements flourished along the Nile. By 3300 BC, just before the first Egyptian dynasty, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper Egypt (Ta Shemau) and Lower Egypt (Ta Mehu).[1] The dividing line was drawn roughly in the area of modern Cairo.

The history of ancient Egypt proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3150 BC. Menes, who unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first king. Egyptian culture was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. This includes religion, customs, art expression, architecture and social structure.

Egyptian chronology, which involves regnal years, began around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the chronology accepted during the 20th century, but it does not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptaica (History of Egypt).

List of pharaohs: The time of the Pharaohs stretches from before 3000 BC to about 30 BC.

Administration and taxation

18 m (59 ft) high sandstone statues of Amenhotep III, flanking the entrance to his mortuary temple in Western Thebes - erroneously identified as the Colossi of Memnon by Greek travellers in antiquityFor administrative purposes, ancient Egypt was divided into nomes (the Greek word for "district"; they were called sepat in ancient Egyptian). The division into nomes can be traced back to the Predynastic Period (before 3100 BC), when the nomes originally existed as autonomous city-states. The nomes remained in place for more than three millennia, with the area of the individual nomes and their order of numbering remaining remarkably stable. Under the system that prevailed for most of pharaonic Egypt's history, the country was divided into 42 nomes: 20 comprising Lower Egypt, whilst Upper Egypt was divided into 22. Each nome was governed by a nomarch, a provincial governor who held regional authority. The position of the nomarch was at times hereditary, at times appointed by the pharaoh.

The ancient Egyptian government imposed a number of different taxes upon its people. As there was no known form of currency during that time period, taxes were paid for "in kind" (with produce or work). The Vizier (ancient Egyptian: tjaty) controlled the taxation system through the departments of state. The departments had to report daily on the amount of stock available, and how much was expected in the future. Taxes were paid for depending on a person's craft or duty. Landowners paid their taxes in grain and other produce grown on their property. Craftsmen paid their taxes in the goods that they produced. Hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river, marshes, and desert. One person from every household was required to pay a corvée or labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year, such as digging canals or mining. However, a richer noble could hire a poorer man to fulfill his labor tax.

Language

Ancient Egyptian constitutes an independent part of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum. Its closest relatives are the Berber, Semitic, and Beja groups of languages. Written records of the Egyptian language have been dated from about 3200 BC, making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. Scholars group Egyptian into six major chronological divisions:

Archaic Egyptian (before 3000 BC)

Consists of inscriptions from the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic period. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing appears on Naqada II pottery vessels.

Old Egyptian (3000–2000 BC)

The language of the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. The Pyramid Texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. Tomb walls of elite Egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing Old Egyptian. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from the next stage.

Middle Egyptian (2000–1300 BC)

Often dubbed Classical Egyptian, this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts dated from about the Middle Kingdom. It includes funerary texts inscribed on sarcophagi such as the Coffin Texts; wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient Egyptian philosophical worldview (see the Ipuwer papyrus); tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual, for example the Story of Sinuhe; medical and scientific texts such as the Edwin Smith Papyrus and the Ebers papyrus; and poetic texts praising a god or a pharaoh, such as the Hymn to the Nile. The Egyptian vernacular already began to change from the written language as evidenced by some Middle Kingdom hieratic texts, but classical Middle Egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the Late Dynastic period (sometimes referred to as Late Middle Egyptian).

Late Egyptian (1300–700 BC)

Records of this stage appear in the second part of the New Kingdom. It contains a rich body of religious and secular literature, comprising such famous examples as the Story of Wenamun and the Instructions of Ani. It was also the language of Ramesside administration. Late Egyptian is not totally distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than that between Middle and Old Egyptian. It's also a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond. Hieroglyphic orthography saw an enormous expansion of its graphemic inventory between the Late Dynastic and Ptolemaic periods.

Demotic Egyptian(7th century BC–4th century AD)

Writing

For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to c.3150 BC. However recent archaeological findings reveal that symbols on Gerzean pottery, c.3250 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms.Also in 1998 a German archeological team under Günter Dreyer excavating at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) uncovered tomb U-j, which belonged to a Predynastic ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto-hieroglyphics dating to the Naqada IIIA period, circa 33rd century BC

Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as hieroglyphs, today standing as the world's earliest known writing system. The hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic, partly ideographic. Hieratic is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC – c. 2775 BC). The term Demotic, in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the Nubian 25th dynasty until its marginalization by the Greek Koine in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of Amr ibn al-A'as in the 7th century AD, the Coptic language survived as a spoken language into the Middle Ages. Today, it continues to be the liturgical language of the Christian minority.

Beginning from around 2700 BC, Egyptians used pictograms to represent vocal sounds -- both vowel and consonant vocalizations (see Hieroglyph: Script). By 2000 BC, 26 pictograms were being used to represent 24 (known) main vocal sounds. The world's oldest known alphabet (c. 1800 BC) is only an abjad system and was derived from these uniliteral signs as well as other Egyptian hieroglyphs.

The hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the 4th century AD. Attempts to decipher it in the West began after the 15th century, though earlier attempts by Muslim scholars are attested (see Hieroglyphica).


Literature

c. 1800 BC: Story of Sinuhe and Ipuwer papyrus
c. 1600 BC: Westcar Papyrus
c. 1400 BC: Tulli Papyrus
c. 1300 BC: Ebers papyrus
c. 1180 BC: Papyrus Harris I
c. 1000 BC: Story of Wenamun

Culture

The Egyptian religion, embodied in Egyptian mythology, is a succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, as early as predynastic times and all the way until the coming of Christianity and Islam in the Graeco-Roman and Arab eras. These were conducted by Egyptian priests or magicians, but the use of magic and spells is questioned.

Every animal portrayed and worshipped in ancient Egyptian art, writing and religion is indigenous to Africa, all the way from the predynastic until the Graeco-Roman eras, over 3000 years. The Dromedary, domesticated first in Arabia, first appears in Egypt (and North Africa) beginning in the 2nd millennium BC.

The temple was a sacred place where only priests and priestesses were allowed. On special occasions people were allowed into the temple courtyard.

The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the ancient world. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. Ancient Egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea of order.

Evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient Egypt indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other prehistoric cultures, transmitted in one way over the Silk Road. Ancient Egypt's foreign contacts included Nubia and Punt to the south, the Aegean and ancient Greece to the north, the Levant and other regions in the Near East to the east, and also Libya to the west.

Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet, mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe anemia and hemolytic disorders.



Achievements

The achievements of ancient Egypt are well known, and the civilization achieved a very high standard of productivity and sophiscation. The art and science of engineering was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as surveying). These skills were used to outline pyramid bases. The Egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. Hydraulic cement was first invented by the Egyptians. The Al Fayyum Irrigation (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian Pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in the Sinai Peninsula.

The sarcophagus found in the great pyramid has been recently re-examined. According to the author Nigel Appleby ('Hall of the Gods') the holes drilled in the sides were considered to have been drilled at a speed and bore rate that cannot be reproduced today. Independent published corroboration by scientists and engineers is awaited for both of these claims.

The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. The roots of the scientific method may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians created their own alphabet (however, it is debated as to whether they were the first to do this because of the margin of error on carbon dated tests), decimal systemand complex mathematical formularizations, in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids, however this may be the consequence of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.

Glass making was highly developed in ancient Egypt, as is evident from the glass beads, jars, figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs. Recent archeology has uncovered the remains of an ancient Egyptian glass factory.


Open problems, scientific inquiry and speculation on Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt has been a fertile field for scientific inquiry, scholarly study, religious inspiration, and open speculation, ranging from the use of electricity to model airplanes. Speculation and inquiry includes the degree of sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there seems to be no neat progression to an Egyptian Iron Age nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians possibly taking a long time to begin using iron. A study of the rest of Africa could point to the reasons: Sub-Saharan Africa confined their use of the metal to agricultural purposes for many centuries. The ancient Egyptians had a much easier form of agriculture with the annual Nile floods and fertile sediment delivery. They thus had no impetus for the development of agricultural implements that would have spurred the adoption of iron. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked granite. A clue is found in the exquisite granite carvings of the Yoruba in West Africa. For years researchers could not fathom how they were carved so smoothly until contemporary workmen demonstrated the simple system of rubbing the quartz with sand and water. The exact date the Egyptians started producing glass is debated.

One of the more extreme claims of recent years is that the ancient "tet" or "djed" has been experimentally identified as an ancient battery.[citation needed] If true this technology would anticipate by thousands of years its rediscovery in the 19th century. There is some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is also contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the Egyptians used engines or batteries. The relief at Dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the Saqqara Bird is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of aerodynamics. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had kites or gliders. Beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several Roman writers — Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro and Columella. It is unknown whether Egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from Southern Asia.

Timeline
(All dates are approximate; see Egyptian chronology for a detailed discussion.)


Predynastic
See main article and timeline: Predynastic Egypt.

3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest known earthenware

Dynastic

The Great Pyramid of Giza.

Egypt was first to create glass objects. [citation needed] 3300 BC: Bronze works (see Bronze Age)
3200 BC: Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First dynasty of Egypt)
3200 BC: Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical document
3100 BC: Decimal system,[13] world's earliest (confirmed) use
3100 BC: Wine cellars, world's earliest known[14]
3050 BC: Shipbuilding in Abydos[15]
3000 BC: Exports from Nile to Palestine and Levant: wine (see Narmer)
3000 BC: Copper plumbing (see Copper: History)
3000 BC: Papyrus, world's earliest known paper
3000 BC: Medical Institutions
2900 BC: possible steel: carbon-containing iron[16]
2700 BC: Surgery, world's earliest known
2700 BC: precision Surveying
2700 BC: Uniliteral signs, forming basis of world's earliest known alphabet
2600 BC: Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone statue
2600s–2500 BC: Shipping expeditions: King Sneferu and Pharaoh Sahure. See also,[17][18]
2600 BC: Barge transportation, stone blocks (see Egyptian pyramids: Construction)
2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale stone building
2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's earliest known works of carved granite
2600 BC: Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work
2580 BC: Great Pyramid of Giza, the world's tallest structure until AD 1300
2500 BC: Beekeeping[19]
2400 BC: Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematical regularity
2200 BC: Beer[20]
1860 BC: possible Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt)
1800 BC: Alphabet, world's oldest known
1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula for volume of frustum
1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric series
1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus, medical tradition traces as far back as c. 3000 BC
1550 BC: Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism; world's earliest known documented tumors (see History of medicine)
1500 BC: Glass-making, world's earliest known
1300 BC: Berlin Mathematical Papyrus,[21] 19th dynasty - 2nd order algebraic equations
1258 BC: Peace treaty, world's earliest known (see Ramesses II[22])
1160 BC: Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geologic and topographic map
1000 BC: Petroleum tar used in mummification[citation needed]
5th–4th century BC (or perhaps earlier): battle games petteia and seega; possible precursors to Chess (see Origins of chess)

See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt Portal
Architecture of ancient Egypt
Art of ancient Egypt
Racial characteristics of ancient Egyptians
Egyptian Museum
Egyptian Mythology
Egyptians
Egypt in the European imagination
Egyptology
History of Egypt
List of Ancient Egyptians
List of Ancient Egyptian Sites
List of Pharaohs
Unsolved problems in Egyptology

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