The Libyan, Western, and Nubian Deserts are all part of which larger desert?

Answer 1

The Sahara is the larger desert which encompasses the Libyan, Western and Nubian Deserts.

Answer 2

The Sahara Desert.

Answer 3

The Sahara Desert holds those smaller deserts. The Sahara desert is so large that it needs smaller sections to it.

Answer 4

Sahara

Answer 5

officially Arab Republic of Egypt, from 1958 to 1971 UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC, republic, NE Africa and Sinai Peninsula, SW Asia. It is bounded on the N by the Mediterranean Sea, on the E by Israel and the Red Sea, on the S by Sudan, and on the W by Libya. The country has a maximum length from N to S of about 1085 km (about 675 mi) and a maximum width, near the S border, of about 1255 km (about 780 mi). It has a total area of 997,739 sq km (385,229 sq mi).

The land of the Nile R., Egypt is the cradle of one of the world's greatest ancient civilizations and has a recorded history that dates from about 3200 bc. The descriptive material that follows is pertinent to modern Egypt. The History section covers Egypt from ancient times, including the Dynastic Period (3200 bc–343 bc), the Hellenistic Period (332 bc–30 bc), Roman and Byzantine Rule (30 bc–ad 638), the Caliphate and the Mamelukes (642–1517), Ottoman Domination (1517–1882), and British colonialism (1882–1952) as well as modern, independent Egypt (1952– ).

LAND AND RESOURCES

Less than 10% of the land area of Egypt is settled or under cultivation. This territory consists of the valley and delta of the Nile and a number of desert oases. More than 90% of the country consists of desert areas, including the Libyan Desert in the W, a part of the Sahara, and the Arabian (or Eastern) Desert, which borders the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez, in the E. The Libyan Desert (also known as the Western Desert) includes a vast sandy expanse called the Great Sand Sea. Located here are several depressions with elevations below sea level, including the Qattarah (Qattara) Depression, which has an area of about 18,100 sq km (about 6990 sq mi) and reaches a depth of 133 m (436 ft) below sea level; also found here are the oases of Siwah, Kharijah, Bahriyah, Farafirah, and Dakhilah. Much of the Arabian Desert occupies a plateau that rises gradually E from the Nile Valley to elevations of about 610 m (about 2000 ft) in the E and is broken along the Red Sea coast by jagged peaks as high as about 2135 m (about 7000 ft) above sea level. In the extreme S, along the border with the Sudan, is the Nubian Desert, an extensive region of dunes and sandy plains. The Sinai Peninsula consists of sandy desert in the N and rugged mountains in the S, with summits looming more than 2135 m (more than 7000 ft) above the Red Sea, and including Jabal Katrinah (2642 m/8668 ft), the highest elevation in Egypt.

The Nile enters Egypt from Sudan and flows N for about 1545 km (about 960 mi) to the Mediterranean Sea. For its entire length from the S border to Cairo the Nile flows through a narrow valley lined by cliffs. At the Sudan border lies Lake Nasser, a huge reservoir formed by the Aswan High Dam. The lake is about 480 km (about 300 mi) long and is about 16 km (10 mi) across at its widest point. South of a point near the town of Idfu, the Nile Valley is rarely more than 3 km (2 mi) wide. From Idfu to Cairo, the valley is about 23 km (about 14 mi) in width, with most of the arable portion on the W side. In the vicinity of Cairo the valley merges with the delta, a fan-shaped plain, the perimeter of which occupies about 250 km (about 155 mi) of the Mediterranean coastline. Silt deposited by the Rosetta (Arab. Rashid), Damietta (Arab. Dumyat), and other distributaries has made the delta the most fertile region in the country. A series of four shallow, brackish lakes extends along the seaward extremity of the delta. Another larger lake, Birkat Qarun, is situated inland in the desert N of the town of al-Fayyum. Geographically and traditionally the Nile Valley is divided into two regions, Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, the former consisting of the delta area and the latter comprising the valley S of Cairo.

Although Egypt has about 2900 km (about 1800 mi) of coastline, two-thirds of which are on the Red Sea, indentations suitable as harbors are confined to the delta. The Isthmus of Suez, which connects the Sinai Peninsula with the African mainland, is traversed from the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Suez by the Suez Canal.

Climate.

The climate of Egypt is characterized by a hot season from May to September and a cool season from November to March. Extreme temperatures during both seasons are moderated by the prevailing N winds. In the coastal region temperatures range between a mean maximum of 37.2° C (99° F) and a mean minimum of 13.9° C (57° F). Wide variations of temperature occur in the deserts, ranging between a mean annual maximum of 45.6° C (114° F) during daylight hours and a mean annual minimum of 5.6° C (42° F) after sunset. During the winter season desert temperatures often drop to 0° C (32° F). The most humid region of the country is along the Mediterranean coast, where the average annual rainfall is about 200 mm (about 8 in). Precipitation decreases rapidly to the S; Cairo receives only about 25 mm (about 1 in) of rain annually, and in many desert locations it may rain only once in several years.

Natural Resources.

Egypt has a wide variety of mineral deposits, some of which, such as gold and red granite, have been exploited since ancient times. The chief mineral resource of contemporary value is petroleum, found mainly in the Red Sea coastal region, at al-Alamayn (el-Alamein) on the Mediterranean, and in the Sinai Peninsula. Other minerals include coal, phosphates, manganese, lead, iron ore, and titanium.

Plants and Animals.

The vegetation of Egypt is confined largely to the Nile delta, the Nile Valley, and the oases. The most widespread of the few indigenous trees is the date palm. Others include the sycamore, tamarisk, acacia, and carob. Trees that have been introduced from other lands include the cypress, elm, eucalyptus, mimosa, and myrtle and various types of fruit trees. The alluvial soils of Egypt, especially in the delta, sustain a broad variety of plant life, including the grape, many kinds of vegetables, and such flowers as the lotus, jasmine, and rose. In the arid regions alfa grass and several species of thorn are common. Papyrus, once prevalent along the banks of the Nile, is now limited to the extreme S.

Because of its arid climate Egypt has few indigenous wild animals. Gazelles are found in the deserts, and the desert fox, hyena, jackal, wild ***, boar, jerboa, and ichneumon inhabit various areas, mainly the delta and the mountains contiguous to the Red Sea. Among the reptiles of Egypt are lizards and several kinds of poisonous snakes, including the asp and the horned viper. The crocodile and hippopotamus, common in the lower Nile and Nile delta in antiquity, are now restricted to the upper Nile. Birdlife is abundant, especially in the Nile delta and Nile Valley. Egypt has about 300 species of birds, including the sunbird, golden oriole, egret, hoopoe, plover, pelican, flamingo, heron, stork, quail, and snipe. Birds of prey include eagles, falcons, vultures, owls, kites, and hawks. Many species of insects are found here; especially numerous are beetles, mosquitoes, flies, and fleas. Scorpions are found in desert areas. About 100 species of fish can be found in the Nile and in the deltaic lakes.

POPULATION

Most Egyptians are descended from the indigenous pre-Muslim population (the ancient Egyptians) and the Arabs, who conquered the area in the 7th century ad. Elements of other conquering peoples (Greeks, Romans, Turks) are also present, mainly in Lower Egypt. The mixture has given the inhabitants of the Nile Valley physical characteristics that distinguish them from other Mediterranean peoples of the region. They are somewhat stockier in build and have darker skins. About 45% of the population lives in urban areas. Some nomadic and seminomadic herders, mostly Bedouins, still live in the desert regions.

Population Characteristics.

The population of Egypt (1993 est.) was 57,109,000. Almost 99% of the population lives within the Nile Valley, which constitutes less than 4% of the country's total area. The overall population density in 1993 was estimated at 57 per sq km (148 per sq mi). The annual growth rate during the early 1990s was about 2.3%. As many as 2.5 million Egyptians may be living and working abroad, mostly in Arab countries.

Political Divisions and Principal Cities.

Egypt is divided for administrative purposes into 26 governorates. The capital and largest city is Cairo, which had an estimated population of 6,663,000 in 1991. Other important cities, with estimated 1991 populations, include Alexandria, the principal port (3,295,000); Giza, an industrial center near Cairo (2,096,000); Port Said, at the Mediterranean entrance to the Suez Canal (449,000); and Suez, the S terminus of the canal (376,000).

Language.

Arabic is the national and official language of Egypt. Berber is spoken in a few villages in the W oases. French and English are common second languages among the educated. See also Coptic Language; Egyptian Language.

Religion.

Islam is the official religion, and about 94% of all Egyptians are Sunnite Muslims. According to official Egyptian estimates, the Coptic Orthodox church, a Christian denomination, has no more than 3 million adherents and constitutes the largest religious minority; Copts themselves claim up to 10 million members (see Coptic Church; Monophysitism). Fewer than 1% of the people belong to the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Armenian, and various Protestant churches. The country has a very small Jewish community. For information on the religion of ancient Egypt, see Egyptian Mythology.

Education.

Elementary education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14. Graduates of primary schools may attend either a general intermediate school, which prepares students for a secondary education, or a technical intermediate school specializing in industrial and agricultural subjects. The secondary school system is similarly divided into general schools, with curricula designed to prepare students for a university education, and technical schools. About 48% of the adult population is literate.

Elementary and secondary schools.

In the early 1990s about 6.4 million children attended about 14,800 elementary schools. In the same period, general secondary schools had a total enrollment of about 4.1 million. Vocational and teacher training schools had an enrollment of more than 1.1 million students.

Universities and colleges.

Egypt has 12 universities. Al-Azhar University at Cairo, founded in 970 as a school of Islamic studies, enrolls about 90,000 students and is the oldest continually existing institution of higher learning in the world. Faculties of engineering, medicine, business administration, and agriculture were added in 1961, and women were first admitted in 1962. Ayn Shams University (1950), in Cairo, has 100,000 students, and the University of Cairo (1908) has more than 76,000 students. Other leading universities include the University of Alexandria (1942), the University of Asyut (1957), and the American University (1919), in Cairo. Egypt also has many technical colleges and institutes of art and music.

Culture.

Egypt is the principal filmmaking country in the Arab world, with a state-operated cinema corporation and numerous private film companies. Among the many outstanding museums in Cairo is the Egyptian National Museum (1902), which houses a vast collection of relics and artifacts from almost every period of ancient Egypt. For more information on the rich and varied heritage of Egypt, see Egyptian Art and Architecture; Egyptian Literature.

ECONOMY

With the promulgation of a series of laws beginning in 1961, the economy of Egypt was rapidly socialized. Foreign trade, wholesale trade, banking, insurance, and most manufacturing enterprises were taken over by the government. Although agriculture, urban real estate, and some manufacturing concerns remained in private hands, stringent regulations were imposed. An economic-development plan introduced in 1960 brought about a considerable expansion of industry and increase in production during the succeeding five years. The plan was replaced in 1965 by a 7-year plan that was less successful, partly because of insufficient foreign investment; a comparatively modest 3-year plan was introduced in 1967. Losses suffered during the Arab-Israeli War of June 1967 (see History section below) and the general economic dislocation that persisted afterward seriously retarded social and economic development. Egypt's economic ills were a major reason for the peace efforts of the late 1970s: the country could not afford another war. Although the economy grew rapidly during the late 1970s and early '80s, the collapse of world oil prices in the mid-1980s left Egypt in difficult financial straits.

Between the mid-1970s and the early 1990s, the U.S. provided Egypt with at least $19 billion in economic assistance. After the Persian Gulf War, the pace of international aid quickened; the U.S. forgave $7 billion in Egyptian debts, and the Persian Gulf states provided $8.5 billion in grants and loan write-offs. Despite this huge volume of foreign aid, living standards for most Egyptians remained low in the early 1990s, with an annual gross national product of only $640 per capita. The annual national budget included $12.6 billion in revenue and $15.2 billion in expenditure.

Agriculture.

Egypt is predominantly an agricultural country, about 40% of the labor force being engaged in crop farming or herding. The pattern of land ownership was greatly altered by the Agricultural Reform Decree of 1952, which limited individual holdings to about 80 ha (about 200 acres), a figure revised in 1961 to about 40 ha (about 100 acres), and revised again to about 20 ha (about 50 acres) in 1969. Lands requisitioned by the government were distributed to the peasants (fellahin), but an economic disparity still remains between the middle-class farmers and the fellahin. Government programs have expanded arable areas through reclamation, irrigation (most notably since the completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970), and the utilization of more advanced technology, such as fertilizers and mechanized equipment.

The yields of Egyptian farmlands are now among the highest in the world. Egypt is the world's most important producer of long-staple cotton. Annual cotton lint production in the early 1990s was about 324,000 metric tons. Yields of corn are also among the highest in the world, with annual production reaching some 5.2 million metric tons. Other leading crops for the same period include rice (3.9 million metric tons), tomatoes (4.7 million metric tons), wheat (4.6 million), and sugarcane (11.6 million). Also produced are watermelons, millet, barley, onions, vegetables, citrus fruits, mangoes, dates, figs, and grapes.

The principal pastoral industry of Egypt is the breeding of beasts of burden. The livestock population in the early 1990s included about 3 million cattle, 3 million buffalo, 4.8 million goats, 4.4 million sheep, 1.6 million asses, and 36 million chickens.

Fishing.

Egypt has a significant fishing industry. In the early 1990s the annual catch was about 298,000 metric tons. Among the most productive areas are the shallow deltaic lakes, Birkat Qarun, and the Red Sea. The formerly productive sardine fisheries along the Mediterranean coast have been greatly depleted since the construction of the Aswan High Dam. A fishing industry is being developed in Lake Nasser.

Mining.

Annual output of crude petroleum, the most important mineral product of Egypt, was about 3.8 million metric tons in the early 1960s. As a result of the discovery in the 1950s and '60s of large new fields in the al-Alamayn and Gulf of Suez areas, and a major exploration effort in the '70s, annual production of crude petroleum increased to approximately 44 million metric tons in the early 1990s. About 7.8 billion cu m (about 275 billion cu ft) of natural gas is also produced annually. During the mid-1970s an Italian consortium constructed a pipeline that is used to carry 80 million metric tons of petroleum annually from the Gulf of Suez to the Mediterranean Sea.

Other important products of the mining industry in the early 1990s included phosphate rock (1,865,000 metric tons), iron ore (2,144,000), and salt (1,125,000).

Manufacturing.

Initial moves toward industrialization in Egypt in the 19th century were frustrated by the European powers, primarily Great Britain, which preferred to have the country remain a market for their manufactured goods. During and after World War I new efforts resulted in the development of a small industrial base capable of meeting some of the domestic demand, and during World War II this base was greatly expanded, especially in the area of textiles. After the overthrow of the monarchy in the early 1950s, the government assigned top priority to industrial expansion. By the mid-1960s, after the completion of the first 5-year plan (1960–65), the total value of industrial production, including electric power and mining output, had reached some $2.71 billion annually, and by the early 1990s the gross value of manufacturing exceeded $4 billion per year.

The most important products of Egyptian industry include cotton yarn (259,000 metric tons per year in the early 1990s), jute yarn and fabrics (45,000), wool yarn (16,000), raw sugar (975,000), sulfuric acid (92,000), paper and paperboard (223,000), cement (14,111,000), rubber tires and tubes (3,334,000 units), and televisions (333,000 units). Other industrial activities include the manufacture of iron and steel (at Hulwan), the assembling of motor vehicles, and the refining of oil (at several locations). These and other industries employed nearly 2 million persons in the late 1980s, accounting for more than 12% of the wage labor force.

Smaller-scale industrial enterprises of significance to the economy include tanning, brewing, and the manufacture of pottery, perfumes, handicrafts, cottonseed oil, flour and other processed foodstuffs, and asphalt. Most of the country's industrial activity is centered around Cairo and Alexandria.

Energy.

Before 1970 most of the electrical power produced in Egypt was generated by thermal plants. The 12 turbines on the Aswan High Dam, completed in 1970, dramatically increased the country's total installed capacity, which by the early 1990s stood at 13.3 million kw. The annual output in the early 1990s was 40.5 billion kwh; almost 25% of that total was supplied by waterpower.

Currency and Banking.

The basic unit of currency is the Egyptian pound, consisting of 100 piastres (3.382 Egyptian pounds equal U.S.$1; 1994). The Central Bank of Egypt, set up in 1961, controls government banking. Many domestic and foreign banks operate in the country. Cairo and Alexandria have stock exchanges.

Trade.

The principal imports of Egypt are agricultural products and foodstuffs, transport equipment, chemicals, mining and quarrying machinery, and metal products. The principal suppliers are the U.S., Germany, Italy, France, Great Britain, and Japan. Because of rapid population growth the country has become more and more dependent on imports and food grants, especially for wheat, flour, and meat. The major exports of Egypt are crude petroleum, cotton yarn and fabrics, raw cotton, clothing, and refined aluminum. The chief customers for these and other exports are Italy, Israel, the U.S., and France.

Despite large-scale investments and tight government controls, Egypt has a serious balance of payments problem. The major sources of foreign currency are cotton, oil, Suez Canal revenues, tourism, foreign aid, and remittances from Egyptian workers employed abroad. In the late 1970s revenues expanded as the Suez Canal was reopened, and with the conclusion of the peace accord with Israel and the gradual returning of occupied Sinai territory (containing oil fields), Egypt realized rapid increases in revenues from both oil production and tourism.

Egypt's trade deficit is chronic. In the early 1990s yearly exports amounted to some $3.4 billion and annual imports to about $8.9 billion. Egypt's total external debt nearly doubled between 1980 and 1992.

Transportation.

Egypt has approximately 8830 km (about 5490 mi) of railroads, all of which are state owned. The principal line links Aswan and points N in the Nile Valley to Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast. The inland waterways of Egypt—including the Nile, navigable throughout its course in the country, the approximately 1610 km (about 1000 mi) of shipping canals, and the more than 17,700 km (more than 11,000 mi) of irrigation canals in the Nile delta—are extensively utilized for transportation. Camel caravans are employed to a limited extent in the desert.

Two highways connect Cairo with Alexandria. Other highways connect Cairo to Port Said, Suez, and al-Fayyum. The total length of highways and roads is about 48,800 km (about 30,320 mi), of which 77% is paved. International airlines provide regular services between Cairo and Alexandria and major world centers. EgyptAir, the government-owned airline, also provides domestic and foreign services. The major port is Alexandria, followed by Port Said and Suez, all of which are served by numerous shipping companies. The Suez Canal, which was closed from 1967 until mid-1975, produces substantial annual toll revenues.

Communications.

The Egyptian press is the most developed in the Arab world, and Cairo is the largest publishing center of the Middle East. All newspapers and periodicals are under governmental supervision, as are all publishing houses. The most important newspaper is the authoritative al-Ahram (daily circulation 900,000), which often reflects the views of the government. The country's 17 daily newspapers have a total daily circulation of more than 3.3 million.

Egypt's Middle East News Agency also serves other countries in the Arab world. A national broadcasting corporation presents programs in Arabic, English, French, and many other languages. More than 14 million radios are in use. Television services, begun in 1960, are under government operation and are carried over five channels. Televisions number about 3.8 million.

GOVERNMENT

Egypt is governed by a constitution promulgated on Sept. 11, 1971. The constitution provides for an Arab socialist state with Islam as the official religion. It also stresses social solidarity, equal opportunity, and popular control of the means of production.

Executive.

The head of state is the president of the republic, who is nominated by the People's Assembly and elected by popular referendum. The president is elected for a 6-year term and has the power to formulate general state policy and supervise its execution. The president can dissolve the People's Assembly, appoint and dismiss cabinet ministers, attend cabinet meetings, and issue decrees during emergencies, but such measures must be approved by referendum within 60 days. Also, the president declares war after approval by the People's Assembly, ratifies treaties, commutes penalties, orders plebiscites, and acts as commander in chief of the armed forces.

Legislature.

Legislative authority in Egypt is vested in the unicameral People's Assembly; 444 of its members are elected for 5-year terms, and 10 members are appointed by the president. The People's Assembly is empowered to approve the budget, make investigations, levy taxes, and approve government programs or withdraw confidence from the cabinet or any of its members. A consultative body, the Advisory Council, consists of 210 members (two-thirds elected, one-third appointed by the president).

Judiciary.

Judicial authority in Egypt is vested in an independent judicial system, which is based on elements of Islamic, English, and French law. The courts are divided into four categories. The supreme constitutional court is the highest judicial body. The court of cassation renders final judgments in civil and criminal matters and is composed of a president, 41 vice-presidents, and 92 justices. Below the court of cassation are seven courts of appeal situated in the important governorates. In each governorate is a primary tribunal that hears both civil and criminal cases. At the lowest level are summary tribunals, which are branches of the primary tribunals situated in various districts and headed by a single judge.

Local Government.

Egypt is divided into 26 governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the president. The governors are assisted by councils, of which the majority of the members are elected.

Political Parties.

From 1961 to 1977 the Arab Socialist Union (ASU) was the only legal political party in Egypt. When a multiparty system was introduced in 1977, the ASU was replaced by several new parties. In the early 1990s the leading political groups were the pro-government National Democratic party, the fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood, and the left-wing Socialist Labor party.

Health and Welfare.

Despite progress in the 20th century, particularly in the health of urban populations, services still lag behind the Egyptian population's needs, especially in rural areas. By the early 1990s life expectancy from birth averaged 63 years for women and 60 for men; during this period the infant mortality rate was 62 per 1000 live births. From the 1960s the ministry of health has made concentrated efforts to establish “rural combined” centers, each serving about 15,000 to 20,000 people. The aim of the centers is to coordinate medical, educational, social, and agricultural services through village councils. Great progress has been made in stamping out cholera, smallpox, and malaria, but such diseases as bilharzia remain widespread. A comprehensive social insurance program was begun in 1959 and has been greatly expanded since.

Defense.

Three years of military service are compulsory for all males over 18 years of age. The total strength of the defense forces in the early 1990s was 430,000: army, 310,000; navy, 20,000; air force, 30,000; and air defense command, 70,000. Military reserves have been reduced from more than 600,000 to about 300,000. Egyptian troops participated with allied forces against Iraq in the Persian Gulf War.

International Organizations.

Egypt is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Arab League, the African Union, the World Trade Organization, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

HISTORY

The origins of ancient Egyptian civilization, which many regard as one of the fountainheads of Western culture, cannot be established with certainty. Archaeological evidence suggests that early dwellers in the Nile Valley were influenced by cultures of the Near East, but the extent is yet to be determined. Describing the development of Egyptian civilization, like attempts to identify its intellectual foundations, is largely a process of conjecture based on archaeological discoveries of enduring ruins, tombs, and monuments, many of which contain invaluable specimens of the ancient culture. Inscriptions in hieroglyphs, for instance, have provided priceless data.

The framework for the study of the Dynastic period of Egyptian history, between the 1st Dynasty and the Ptolemaic period, relies on the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, a Ptolemaic priest of the 3d century bc, who organized the country's rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding to families. General agreement exists on the division of Egyptian history, up to the conquest of Alexander the Great, into Old, Middle, and New kingdoms with intermediate periods, followed by the late and Ptolemaic periods, but chronology and genealogy are continually being refined in light of new evidence and by the use of increasingly sophisticated dating techniques.