psychology essays?

Answer 1

want one? there u go
Freud and his contributions to Psychology

Sigmund Freud physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist and the father of psychoanalysis is generally recognised as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century.
Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia in 1856. When he was four years old he and his family moved to Vienna where he lived until the last year of his life. He was the 1st child of his mother but not of the father. Therefore his mother spoiled him and the relationship to his father was a bit hostile. From 1873-1881 he attended medical school at the university of Vienna. He specialised in the treatment of nervous disorders. Afterwards he studied the “taking cure” under the Viennese physician Joseph Breur. He also studied hypnosis under the French psychiatrist Jean-Martin Charcot. In 1881 he received his medical degree shortly after which he got engaged to Martha Bernays. They married in 1886. His marriage was extremely happy and gave him six children, the youngest, Anna, became a distinguished pyschoanalysist, too. For over 40 years Freud explored the unconscious mind by free association (this is a technique used in psychology, devised by Sigmund Freud. In it, patients are asked to continually relate anything which comes into their minds, regardless of how superficially unimportant or potentially embarrassing the memory threatens to be. This technique assumes that all memories are arranged in a single associative network, and that sooner or later the patient will stumble across the crucial memory). In 1923 he was diagnosed with cancer from which he died of, on the 23 of September 1939 in London.

One of Freud’s most important contributions was the psychodynamic approach also known as the Freudian theory of personality. According to that there are three levels of awareness (see Topographic model): the conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious. Freud’s theory of the mind has been linked to an iceberg (also known as topographic model), where the vast majority is buried underneath the water’s surface. Only 10% are visible. This is the conscious which we can observe if we turn out attention inwards. The other 90% are beneath the waters surface. The first 10-15% of that represent the preconscious, these are things we are not thinking about but could bring into consciousness easily if we wished. The other 75-80% represent the unconscious which is the biggest and most important part of our mind. According to Freud our repressed memories and instincts lie in the unconscious. It can not be accessed easily because it is buried deep down in our mind. The only way to surface it is to ‘dig’. However, we can get clues from our unconscious i.e. slips of the tongue, accidents or lapses of memory. The iceberg model also includes the three structures of the mind, the id, ego and the superego. The first structure, the id, lies deep in our unconscious at the bottom of the iceberg. It is the part of our mind we are born with. The id is the primitive ‘irrational’ part of our mind and works on the pleasure principle i.e. “I want it and I want it now!” The second structure is the ego. It lies in all three levels of the mind. The Ego is the ‘rational’ part and works on the reality principle i.e. “you can’t always get what you want”. In addition the ego has to negotiate between the id and the superego, to keep balance. The superego is the third and last structure of the mind. It lies in the preconscious. It is the moral part of our mind, the conscience. The superego is the embodiment of parental and social values. In his theory of the psychological development Freud overlooked that experiences after the first five years of life also affect the personality.

Sigmund Freud also developed a theory of how our sexuality starts from a very young age and develops through various fixations. He called them the psychosexual stages of development. Altogether there are five psychosexual stages every human being has to go through. The oral stage (0-18 month), the anal stage (18 month-3 ½ years), the phallic stage (3 ½ -6 years), the stage of latency (6 years – puberty) and the genital stage (puberty-adulthood). There are three parts to each stage, the physical focus, a psychological theme and the adult character type. In the oral stage the physical focus is on the mouth, the psychological theme is dependency and therefore the adult character will either be extremely dependent or highly independent. In this stage the baby is still all id, just wants things. The next stage is the anal stage where the physical focus is on the anus. The psychological theme is self control and obedience and therefore the adult character will either be anally retentive i.e. highly self controlled, overly organised, subservient to authority, or anally expulsive i.e. little self-control, disorganised, hostile. In this age the toilet training takes place and the child begins to develop a new psychological structure, the ego. It has to learn to control the rest of the mind in a rational manner. The next stage is the phallic stage in which the physical focus is on the penis, the psychological theme is sexual identification based on the Oedipus/Electra complex where you fall in love with the opposite sex parent and hate the same sex parent. This is solved by identifying with the same sex parent. It starts when children realise that girls and boys are different. They have to come to terms with sexual differences. The boys look at the girls and wonder what happened to them and if it will happen to them (fear of castration awakes). The girls just wonder what happened. The adult character will be either amoral and promiscuous or asexual and puritanical. In this stage the superego is formed. This happens through e.g. lessons learnt. The next stage, the stage of latency is a period of relative calm. Here it is all about getting on with the same sex. It is also a chance to take a developmental breath i.e. concentrate on learning. The genital stage is the last one of Freud’s psychosexual stages. Its physical focus is on the genitals (not just the physical organ- refers to the process of reproduction and giving life). The psychological theme is sexual reproduction, intellectual and artistic creativity and therefore the adult character will be well-adjusted and balanced. This is the only stage in which nothing must pass through but something must attain. Now a mature attitude about sexuality and other aspects of adulthood will develop (although not all people reach this stage). With his theory of development Freud influenced many other psychologists, one of which was Piaget who made great contributions to our present education system.

Freud’s concept of an unconscious element of human nature which influenced conscious behaviour was strongly resisted. It was disturbing to many people and questioned the idea of humans being the captain of their soul. The Freudian slip has become one of the popular examples of the influence of the unconscious. Saying to guests arriving at our house, I’m so sorry - I mean glad - you could come suggests ones real feeling was sorrow at their arrival, not gladness.

To develop and prove his theories Freud used case studies. One of them was Anna O.
(see picture). Anna O.was the pseudonym used for Bertha Pappenheim. She suffered from epilepsy; one of her arms was paralyzed as a result of complex seizures. After study, it was discovered this was the arm she had cradled her dying father with. It was theorised that she was unconsciously stopping the use of the arm as punishment because she blamed herself for her father's death.Through analysis it was discovered that by talking about what had happened when the symptoms started, she would bring the repressed fact back into consciousness and then recover. This is what Pappenheim called her "talking cure". This case was the beginning of psychoanalysis.
Case studies are particularly useful when you are examining a rare case, illustrating treatment, demonstrating possibilities and when the individual studied is not different from other people on the dimension on interest. Case studies are also valuable for generating hypotheses. However, the case study method also has weaknesses. For example the investigator’s subjective judgement often interferes with the scientific objectivity (expectancy of researcher might cause him to see and report what he wants to see). Another problem is that you cannot generalise from one person to another and you cannot determine the cause-effect-relationship with this method (e.g. nearly drowning might cause fear of water or might not).

Over the years Freud has often been criticised for things like his pessimistic psychic determinism (no free will?), the reliability and validity of his theories, the lack of parsimony (simplest explanation), the use of the case study method (unfalsifiable, confidential), overlooking the role of the environment, the fact that he saw 4-5 patients a day and wrote up his notes in the evening. I also think that he overemphasised the sexual drive and that he was very sexist i.e. females are just castrated males and spend their lives grieving for not having a penis. However, Freud's theories are mainly criticized for not being real science. This objection was raised most famously by Karl Popper, who claimed that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable. If a theory cannot possibly be falsified, then it cannot be considered scientific. Popper argued that Freud's theories of psychology can never be properly "verified," because no type of behavior could ever falsify them (e.g. someone who denies having any sort of Oedipal conflict is interpreted as repressing it). On the other hand, numerous experimental and correlational studies have provided empirical support for certain Freudian concepts, such as the pattern of the anal personality.
There are also some key strenghts to Freuds theories for example he developed the 1st comprehensive theory of peronality and behaviour and the 1st system of psychotherapy. He also emphasised the role of the unconscious, early childhood experiences and the dynamic nature of behaviour. In addition, he stimulated and influenced further personality research.
Personally, I think Freud had many great ideas and explanations, especially considering the time he lived in. He had a big influence on psychology and on the modern conceptions of the mind and continues to influence psychtherapy (75% of psychotherapists rely on psychoanalytic ideas e.g. many non-freudians practice the taking cure, free association and transference). And finally Freud had the only complete theory of personality ever proposed.

Answer 2

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Answer 3

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Answer 4

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Answer 5

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