I have a history project, on Vijayanagara Empire. Can any one help me?

Question

I need it by 22nd November, Indian time.

I need Hampi too.

Answer 1

The Vijayanagara empire (Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ, Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము) was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 CE onwards. It was founded by Harihara, also known as Hakka, and his brother Bukka Raya with the support of saint Vidyaranya.[1] It is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, whose impressive ruins surround Hampi in modern Karnataka, India. It lasted from about 1336 CE to perhaps about 1660 CE, though throughout its last century it was in a slow decline due to a catastrophic defeat at the hands of an alliance of the Sultanates. Its founding, and even great part of its history are only now being discovered[2], but its power and wealth are attested by the writings of many European travellers, such as the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Nuniz, and the Venetian Niccolò Da Conti in 1420. Several works of literature in local vernaculars also provide critical information needed to piece together the history of the empire.[3]

The empire left behind a legacy of great monuments spread all over South India, the finest of which are at the regal capital Vijayanagara (Hampi), a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Literature and poetry reached a new peak in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit with works spanning Advaita, Dvaita, Virashaiva and Jaina faith. Efficient administration and overseas trade brought many new technologies to South India, especially in the field of irrigation and water management.[4] Mingling of the people of South India, irrespective of faith and vernacular brought new inspiration in architecture resulting in the construction of Hindu temples in the Deccan style and later in the dravidian idiom using locally available granite. The traditions that had been acquired in temple building during the rule of previous great empires of South India seemed to all come together into one style, called the Vijayanagar Architecture. Many royal structures were also built in secular style showing influences from the Sultanates of Northern Deccan. This era saw the birth of Carnatic music in its current form. Above all, the empire created an epoch in the history of South India which rose above the politics of narrow regionalism espousing the cause of the ancient and indigenous Hindu dharma.

The Empire
Vijayanagara Empire

Sangama Dynasty
Harihara Raya I 1336-1356
Bukka Raya I 1356-1377
Harihara Raya II 1377-1404
Virupaksha Raya 1404-1405
Bukka Raya II 1405-1406
Deva Raya I 1406-1422
Ramachandra Raya 1422
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya 1422-1424
Deva Raya II 1424-1446
Mallikarjuna Raya 1446-1465
Virupaksha Raya II 1465-1485
Praudha Raya 1485
Saluva Dynasty
Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya 1485-1491
Thimma Bhupala 1491
Narasimha Raya II 1491-1505
Tuluva Dynasty
Tuluva Narasa Nayaka 1491-1503
Viranarasimha Raya 1503-1509
Krishna Deva Raya 1509-1529
Achyuta Deva Raya 1529-1542
Sadashiva Raya 1542-1570
Aravidu Dynasty
Aliya Rama Raya 1542-1565
Tirumala Deva Raya 1565-1572
Sriranga Deva Raya 1572-1586
Venkatapati Deva Raya 1586-1614
Sriranga Raya 1614
Ramadevaraya 1617-1632
Venkatapati Raya 1632-1642
Sriranga Raya II 1642-1646
Venkatapati Raya II


[edit] Founding
Main article: origin of Vijayanagar empire
The founding of the original kingdom was based on the principality of Anegondi, based on a fortified town on the Tungabhadra river in the Deccan. In the century preceding the founding of the empire, the old kingdoms of the Deccan had been overrun by Muslim invaders from the north. From 1309, Malik Kafur reached and captured Warangal, later on reaching the Malabar kingdoms. Mubarak of Delhi reached Warangal again in 1323. Between 1334 and 1336, Muhammad Tughlaq of Delhi again overran the region, capturing Anegondi.

Many theories have been propounded about the origin of Vijayanagar empire. Well known historians from Archeological Survey of India hold their own opinions about the origin of the empire. Prof. K.A. Nilakanta Sastry[5], Dr. N. Ventakaramanayya[6] and B. Surya Narayana Rao[7] claim a Telugu origin of Harihara and Bukka Raya. The Telugu origin theory is based on works by Robert Sewell[8] and records written by Muslim writers of those times. Historians such as Dr. P.B. Desai[9], Fr. Henry Heras[10], Prof. Dr. B.A. Saletore[11], G.S. Gai[12], Prof. William Coelho[13] Dr. Suryanath U. Kamat[14] attest to the empire's Kannada origin. The Kannada origin theory is based on epigraphy (study of inscriptions, numismatics etc.) and Kannada literary works of Vijayanagar times like Kumara Rama charita, Chikkadevaraya Vamshavali and Keladinripa Vijayam.

To sum up, unless new evidence is discovered the exact origin and ancestry of Vijayanagar founders will remain a controversial matter.


[edit] Consolidation
Within the first two decades of coming to power Harihara I came to rule much of the area south of Tungabhadra river. He gained titles like Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara or master of the eastern and western oceans. His patronage of Sringeri Peetha started from his 1346 grant to build the Vidyasharnaka temple there. His four brothers became governors of various regions of the kingdom. By 1371 Bukka Raya who succeeded Harihara I defeated the chiefdom of Arcot (1360), Reddis of Kodavidu and Sultan of Madurai and annexed it into the kingdom.[15] By 1374, the regions of Goa, Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab came under their control. The island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the Ming dynasty of China[16].

Vijayanagar Kingdom was now beginning to look like an imperial empire. His second son Harihara II defeated the Bahmani Sultan Mujahid and captured ports of Goa, Chaul and Dabhol in North Konkan, Udayagiri in north eastern Andhra and defeated the Velamas of Rachakonda north of the Krishna river. The whole of South India now was under the Vijayanagar umbrella.[17] Deva Raya I was the next capable ruler who fought the Gajapatis of Orissa successfully. Great works of fortification and irrigation were under taken during his time.[18] Deva Raya II, possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers took control in 1424. He was called Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants.[19] His rule saw success against the Gajapatis of Orissa and Reddys' of Kondavidu, Zamorin of Calicut who though may not have been in direct control may have paid tributes, Quilon, and even an invasion of Lanka brought rich tributes. Even the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim paid tributes.[20] Persian traveller Abdur Razzak who travelled in Vijayanagar in 1443 C.E. paid rich tributes to the king and his empire.[21] His rule also saw the patronage of many scholars in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit. The next forty years saw the decline of the empire due to weak rulers and a lot of territory was lost. They were followed by an able commander Saluva Narasimha in 1485 under whose rule a serious attempt was made to reconsolidate the empire. Sripadaraya, the Madhwa Haridasa was his able Rajguru. He was followed by his able general Narasa Nayaka, son of Tuluva Isvara in 1491 who took proxy control of the empire and fought many wars to prevent disintegration of the empire. After nearly two decades of trying to bring rebellious chieftains under control, The empire eventually came under the rule of the able son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, Krishnadevaraya.[22]



[edit] The empire at its peak
In the following decades, the Vijayanagar empire dominated all of southern India having grown into a powerful empire. The empire during that period served as a bulwark against invasion from the Turkic Sultanates of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and remained in constant competition and conflict with the five Deccan Sultanates that established themselves in the Deccan to the north of it.[23]

In about 1510, Goa, which had been under the rule of the Sultan of Bijapur, was captured by the Portuguese, possibly with the approval or connivance of Vijayanagara. Commerce between the Portuguese and Vijayanagara became very important to both sides.

The empire is generally considered to have reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya.[24] During this time, Vijayanagar armies were successful and victorious everywhere. The annexation of Bijapur, Raichur and Bidar, conquer of territories on the east of the Deccan that belonged previously to Orissa including Kalinga, the acceptance of Vijayanagar supremacy by the rebellious feudatories of Kondavidu, Rachakonda, Ummatur and chiefs of Tamil country all brought the whole of South India under one umbrella.[25] Many of the great monuments of the empire either were completed or commissioned during his time. Among these are the Hazara Rama temple, the Krishna temple and the Ugra Narasimha idol, all at Vijayanagara.[26]

Krishna Deva Raya was followed by Achyuta Raya in 1530. In 1542, Achyuta was succeeded by Sada Siva Raya. But the real power lay with Aliya Rama Raya, son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya (of the fourth dynasty, who followed him), who seems to have made a point of unnecessarily provoking the Deccan sultanates, so that eventually they allied against him. However some historians disagree with this. They believe Rama Raya's involvement in Sultanate affairs was with the best interests of Vijayanagar itself.[27]



[edit] Defeat

courtyard pillars HampiIn 1565, at the battle of Talikota, after what seemed like an easy victory for Vijayanagar, the sudden capture and killing of Rama Raya created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagar army. The army of Vijayanagara was routed by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates who attacked and plundered Hampi reducing it to ruins as it stands today. With this, the last significant Hindu state in the Deccan came to an end. Tirumala Raya, the sole survivor left Vijayanagar with treasure on back of 550 elephants to Penukonda. Though the battle is called "Battle of Talikota", some scholars say the war was actually fought in between two towns Rakkasagi and Tangadigi in modern Bijapur district close to Talikota and is also called "Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi"[28], while another scholar claims Bannihatti was the actual battle ground.[29] Many theories have been proposed for the sudden defeat but the most prominent cause seems to be betrayal by two commanders called Gilani brothers who were employed by Rama Raya.[30] Regarding the pillage of Vijayanagara, though some scholars say this was in revenge for similar atrocities committed by Rama Raya in the Sultanate kingdoms earlier, this theory has not found too much support because it is well known that Rama Raya was a secular man and that many Muslims had been promoted to very high cadre in his government.

Vijayanagara is considered by many today, especially in the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, to have been a golden age of culture and learning.

Main article: Battle of Talikota

[edit] Decline
While the empire still continued to have some power, and commanded respect, it went into a steady decline, with the capital being changed on three occasions. It is known however that they continued to trade with the Portuguese, and that they gave the British the land grant that enabled the establishment of Madras. The Telugu work Vasucharitamu refers to Tirumala (Aliya Tirumala, another son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya), the first of the Aravidu line of coronated rulers as the reviver of the Karnata Empire.[31] He is said to have crowned himself as king in 1570 at Penukonda. His brother Aliya Rama Raya was the first from the Aravidu family to rule in Vijayanagara but without official coronation. After the defeat at Talikota, Tirumala fled to Penukonda in present day Andhra Pradesh and ruled a highly reduced empire. He was succeeded by his son Sriranga I during whose rule the empire shrank further. Next came his brother Venkata II who made Chandragiri his capital. He was an able ruler and repulsed the invasion of the Bahamani Sultans and saved Penukonda from being captured. His death brought internal revolt for succession and finally Ramadeva took power and ruled till 1632. After his death, the grandson of Aliya Rama Raya, Venkata III became king and ruled for about ten years. During the rule of Sriranga III, Vellore had become the capital and the empire came to an end with a successful invasion of Vijayanagar territory by the Sultan of Bijapur and Golkonda. Following this, the largest feudatories of the erstwhile empire, the Nayakas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the kingdom of Mysore became the main powers in South India.


[edit] Religion

Rangamantapa, Black Granite pillars HampiMain article: Haridasas of Vijayanagar Empire
The empire was born with the intention of protecting Hindu dharma from the onslaughts of the Mugal invasion of South India. However, like true Hindus, the kings of the empire were tolerant to all religions and sects. They did not discriminate against Muslims and Christians. The travelogues of many foreign visitors to the empire attests to this.[32]

The Vijayanagar kings used titles like Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya, Hindurayasuratrana, Vaidikamarga Samsthapanacharya which gives an idea of their intention to protect Hinduism. The founders of the empire Harihara I and Bukka Raya I were Shaiva Hindus but were patronised Vaishnava Sringeri Peetha with Vidyaranya as their patron saint. They made Varaha (boar, an avatar of Vishnu) their emblem. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings including Krishnadevaraya were Sri Vaishnava but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi and Lord Venkateshwara at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by king Krishnadevaraya calls Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani (Protective jewel of Karnata Empire).[33] They patronised the saints of the dvaita Madhvacharya peetha at Udupi.[34]

The Haridasa movement presented, like the Virashaiva movement, another strong current of bhakthi, pervading the lives of millions. Thus the haridasas presented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhwacharya through Kannada language to the people in the form of Devaranamas and Kirthanas. The philosophy of Madhvacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Vyasatirtha, Naraharitirtha, Padmanabha Tirtha, Akshobhya Tirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha and others. In the 15th. century, the haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya of Mulbagal but his disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with the Vijayanagar Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force.[35] His eminent disciples were Sri Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Father of Carnatic music)[36] and Kanakadasa. Vyasathirtha was the guru of Krishnadevaraya who considered the saint his Kuladevata and highly honoured him.[37] During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Tallapakam Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Tirupati.[38] Together, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya and Vadirajatirtha are called the Yathi Trayaru or the holy Trinity.[39]


[edit] Literature
Main article: Vijayanagar Literature
The Vijayanagar era is considered a golden age of arts and cultural developments. Great works in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were written. A magnificent epoch in the history of South India, the period saw the rise of Telugu language as a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya.



[edit] Kannada
The Vijayanagar era continued the ancient tradition of Kannada literature.[40] In Kannada, famous Jain poets were Madhura (patronised by Harihara II and Deva Raya I), Ratnakaravarni and others. Virashaiva literature saw a renaissance with many famous works by Singiraja, Mallanarya (who was patronised by Krishnadevaraya). Deva Raya II patronised several Virashaivas like Lakkana Dandesa, Chamarasa, Jakkanarya. Tontada Siddesvara was the guru of Virupaksha Raya II. Famous among Vaishnava scholars were, Kumara Vyasa (patronised by Deva Raya II), Timmanna Kavi and Chatu Vittalanatha patronised by Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Raya, Narahari and Kanakadasa. Purandaradasa (who was patronised by Achyuta Raya) and Kanakadasa wrote Dasa Sahithya and Keerthanas sowing the seeds of carnatic music. Nanjunda, Kereya Padmarasa, Mangaraja and Linganna were other famous poets.



[edit] Telugu
The Vijayanagar period was the golden age of Telugu literature.[41] Famous among Telugu scholars were Srinatha (who was patronised by the Kondavidu Reddy Kings and Sangama brothers), Mallayya, Singayya, Vishvanatha Nayani and Nachanna Soma (who was patronised by Bukka Raya I). During the reign of Krishnadevaraya Telugu culture and literature flourished and reached their heyday. The great emperor was himself a celebrated poet having composed Amuktamalyada. In his court, eight Telugu poets were regarded as the eight pillars of the literary assembly. These poets were Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramambhadrudu, Pingali Surana, Ramarajabhushanudu, and Tenali Ramakrishna.



[edit] Sanskrit
Sanskrit literature was given state patronage by the Vijayanagar kings.[42] Some important scholars were Sayana, Madhva Vidyaranya, the spiritual force behind the founding empire, Devanna Bhatta, Gangadevi and Tirumalamba Devi, Rajanatha Dindima, Rajanatha Dindima II, Vedanta Desika, Gunda Dindima and Gangambika. Some Vijayanagar kings were also scholars. Deva Raya I, Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, Krishnadevaraya were accomplished scholars in Sanskrit. Krishnadevaraya also patronised Tamil poets[43] Haridasa, Arunagirinatha, Svarupananda Deshika, Tattuvaraya, Pugalendi, Jnanprakashar, Andari, Kacchiyappa Shivacharya and Ilanjuriyar.


[edit] Architecture
See also: Vijayanagar Architecture, Vijayanagara, and Hampi

Lord Rama breaking Shiva's bow, Hampi
Inside the Hazara Rama temple Hampi
Watch tower, secular style HampiThe architecture of Vijayanagar Empire is considered by many historians as a vibrant combination of Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles.[44] They left behind a legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting that influenced the development of arts long after the empire came to an end. The hallmark of their style was the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa, Vasanthamantapa and the towering Rayagopura. The use of locally available granite was popularised and favoured over the previously popular soapstone or other materials. This was in fact due to an imperative need for durability rather than sculptability, the kingdom being under constant threat of invasions. While their monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air museum of monuments at their regal capital at Vijayanagar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[45] During the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or deccan style monuments but during the 15th. century a slow transition occurred when they incorporated dravida style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka I, Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan style temples.[46] The varied and intricate treatment given to various style of pillars was their special feature.[47] At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the epitome of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a more modest but perfectly finished example of this style.[48] The conspicuous feature of their style was the return of simplistic and serene art of the Badami Chalukya.[49] The grandest specimen of Vijayanagar art, the Vitthala temple shows patronage given to it during the entire reign of the Tuluva kings.[50]

Other important features of Vijayanagar style was the creation of large monolithics like the Sasivekalu Ganesha, Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi, Gomoteshwara statues in Karkala and Venur in coastal Karnataka, the Nandi bull in Lepakshi (the largest in India), Andhra Pradesh. Vijayanagar temples of Bhatkal, and other towns of coastal Karnataka, Kanakagiri, Sringeri in malnad Karnataka, Tadpatri and Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh, Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are also great examples of their style.

The Vijayanagar style also includes paintings. Paintings of Dasavathara and Girijakalyana in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, Shivapurana paintings at Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi and paintings at the Jains basadi, Kamaskshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi are some examples.[51]

Historians feel that keeping in pitch with the task at hand of protecting Hindu dharma, South Indian architecture attained richness and fulfillment. In the Vijayanagar architecture, the art of decoration perhaps surpassed anything else similar in Hindu India, the Vitthala temple reaching the extreme zenith of artistic fervor. A certain freshness seemed to have evolved to break a static spell in Hindu rock architecture.[52]

Some structures in Hampi also exhibit secular architecture with mixing of Hindu and Islamic styles. A dimension of the Vijayanagar architecture that brings out the cosmopolitan lifestyle of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic influence. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagar empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that betray this influence. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers indicates they were for use by royalty.[53] The decorative details of these secular structures seem to have migrated into Vijayanagara during the rule of Firuz Shah and Ahamad Shah of the Bahamani kingdoms. This period coincides with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II who are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of harmony between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.[54] Even the great platform called Mahanavmi dibba has relief carvings which appear to depict figures of central Asian Turks. It is well known that these Turks were employed as royal attendants.[55]


[edit] Background

Natural fortress, Hampi
Chalukya pillars and dravida vimana, Hampi
[edit] Land
The principality of Vijayanagar from its outermost fortification consists of Anegondi in the north to the town of Hospet in the south covering in total about 650 km².[56] The core area of Vijayanagar covers around 25 km². The surroundings of the city are magnificent. The Tungabhadra flows through a rocky terrain with massive boulders piled up in fantastic formations. This landscape is a naturally inaccessible fortification. In addition, man made fortifications surrounded the regal city in several layers.[57] The rocky hilloks made excellent sentinel points or watch towers. The boulders provided raw material for temple construction activities. Going south from the river, the rocky landscape disappears replaced by flat cultivable land. Here is where the massive temple complexes are situated. The largest populations were located to the south of the irrigated lands, fed by clever ducts and anecut channeling water to the capital from the river. At its peak, Vijayanagara may have had up to a million residents.



[edit] Legend
There are two important legends associated with Hampi, the core area of Vijayanagar. One legend has it that a local goddess called Pampa married Virupaksha (Lord Shiva) on the Hemakuta Hill and hence came to be considered an incarnation of Parvati. From Pampa came the name Pampe or in Kannada Hampe. The other legend draws from the Hindu epic Ramayana. Lord Rama and Lakshmana came looking for Sita to the area, the location of the ancient capital of Kishkindha and met Hanuman on the Rishyamuka Hill. Then followed a covenant between Sugreeva, the monkey king in exile and Lord Rama to mutually help each other in finding Sita and getting rid of evil king Vali. The agreement is celebrated by the presence of the only temple in India with idols of Lord Rama, Lakshmana and Sugreeva. Hanuman himself is said to have been born on Anjenadri Hill, near Tungabhadra river facing Hampi.[58] Archaeologically, Hampi traces back to neolithic settlements. There is sufficient inscriptional evidence that in more recent times the area came under the rule of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and finally the tiny kingdom of Kampili.



[edit] Choice of Capital
Main articles: Ancient City of Vijayanagara and Life in Vijayanagar Empire
The legendary associations of the area with Lord Virupaksha (Harihara and Bukka Raya being of Shaiva faith) and Lord Rama, the personification of the perfect king was not lost to the founders of the empire. Its natural ruggedness and inaccessibility must have all been reasons to choose this area as the capital of the new empire.[59] During the rule of the empire, Vijayanagara came to known as one of the most beautiful cities in India.[60] An copper plate inscription (Tamarashasana) of Marappa, one of the Sangama brothers dated 1346 gives the Sangama genealogy and identifies family deity (gotradhidaivam) of the Sangama family as Lord Virupaksha[61] Many inscriptions attesting the elevation of Lord Virupaksha to Rashtra devata (God of the Kingdom) have been found. By the time of Bukka I, the capital had already grown into a great capital. An inscription calls it great Nagari named Vijaya situated in Hemakuta.[62].



[edit] Coins and Inscriptions
The Empire minted coins with Devanagari, Kannada and Telugu legends[63], usually giving the name of the ruler. The empire had its mints in Hampi, Penugonda and Tirupati. Gold, silver and copper were used to make coins. Gadyana, Varaha, Pon, Pagoda, Pratapa, Pana, Kasu and Jital were the various coins issued in the Vijayanagar period. The most beautiful Vijayanagar coins were those with the images of various gods and goddesses and animals and birds. The earliest coins feature Hanuman and the Garuda (divine eagle), the mount of Lord Vishnu. The Vijayanagar rulers also issued gold coins featuring divine couples. Venkatapatiraya III, one of the last Vijayanagar rulers, minted coins showing Vishnu with Sridevi and Bhudevi. Krishnadevaraya issued many coins featuring Balakrishna. He issued these coins after he built a Krishna Temple at Hampi and installed in it an image of Krishna that he had brought from Udayagiri after conquering it from the Gajapati ruler of Orissa. On these coins, the playful Krishna is seen seated. Lord Venkateshwara, the presiding deity of the temple at Tirumala (Tirupati), also figures on Vijayanagar coins. A rare copper coin of the Vijayanagar ruler Sriranga I shows a standing figure of the emperor with a sword in his hand. Another rare copper coin issued by Sadasivaraya shows a fully caparisoned galloping horse. The elephant and the bull too appear on many Vijayanagar coins. Kannada and Telugu inscriptions have been deciphered and recorded by historians.[64]


[edit] Successors of Vijayanagar empire
After the decline of the empire, The Nayaka feudatories gained independence. They were the Nayakas in Karnataka and TamilNadu. They made a major impact in the later political scene. Among them the Madurai Nayaks ruled till 1734, The kingdom of Mysore lasted until Indian independence in 1947, although during the later part of their rule, from 1799 CE., they came under the British Raj. The Keladi and Chitradurga Nayakas also ruled till the end of 18th. century.

Nayaks of Madurai
Nayaks of Tanjore
Keladi Nayakas of Shimoga
Nayakas of Chitradurga
Mysore Kingdom
Nayakas of Gingee

Answer 2

Vijayanagara Kingdom

Answer 3

The Vijayanagara empire (Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ, Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము) was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 CE onwards. It was founded by Harihara, also known as Hakka, and his brother Bukka Raya with the support of saint Vidyaranya.[1] It is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, whose impressive ruins surround Hampi in modern Karnataka, India. It lasted from about 1336 CE to perhaps about 1660 CE, though throughout its last century it was in a slow decline due to a catastrophic defeat at the hands of an alliance of the Sultanates. Its founding, and even great part of its history are only now being discovered[2], but its power and wealth are attested by the writings of many European travellers, such as the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Nuniz, and the Venetian Niccolò Da Conti in 1420. Several works of literature in local vernaculars also provide critical information needed to piece together the history of the empire.[3]

The empire left behind a legacy of great monuments spread all over South India, the finest of which are at the regal capital Vijayanagara (Hampi), a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Literature and poetry reached a new peak in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit with works spanning Advaita, Dvaita, Virashaiva and Jaina faith. Efficient administration and overseas trade brought many new technologies to South India, especially in the field of irrigation and water management.[4] Mingling of the people of South India, irrespective of faith and vernacular brought new inspiration in architecture resulting in the construction of Hindu temples in the Deccan style and later in the dravidian idiom using locally available granite. The traditions that had been acquired in temple building during the rule of previous great empires of South India seemed to all come together into one style, called the Vijayanagar Architecture. Many royal structures were also built in secular style showing influences from the Sultanates of Northern Deccan. This era saw the birth of Carnatic music in its current form. Above all, the empire created an epoch in the history of South India which rose above the politics of narrow regionalism espousing the cause of the ancient and indigenous Hindu dharma.

Founding
Main article: origin of Vijayanagar empire
The founding of the original kingdom was based on the principality of Anegondi, based on a fortified town on the Tungabhadra river in the Deccan. In the century preceding the founding of the empire, the old kingdoms of the Deccan had been overrun by Muslim invaders from the north. From 1309, Malik Kafur reached and captured Warangal, later on reaching the Malabar kingdoms. Mubarak of Delhi reached Warangal again in 1323. Between 1334 and 1336, Muhammad Tughlaq of Delhi again overran the region, capturing Anegondi.

Many theories have been propounded about the origin of Vijayanagar empire. Well known historians from Archeological Survey of India hold their own opinions about the origin of the empire. Prof. K.A. Nilakanta Sastry[5], Dr. N. Ventakaramanayya[6] and B. Surya Narayana Rao[7] claim a Telugu origin of Harihara and Bukka Raya. The Telugu origin theory is based on works by Robert Sewell[8] and records written by Muslim writers of those times. Historians such as Dr. P.B. Desai[9], Fr. Henry Heras[10], Prof. Dr. B.A. Saletore[11], G.S. Gai[12], Prof. William Coelho[13] Dr. Suryanath U. Kamat[14] attest to the empire's Kannada origin. The Kannada origin theory is based on epigraphy (study of inscriptions, numismatics etc.) and Kannada literary works of Vijayanagar times like Kumara Rama charita, Chikkadevaraya Vamshavali and Keladinripa Vijayam.

To sum up, unless new evidence is discovered the exact origin and ancestry of Vijayanagar founders will remain a controversial matter.


[edit] Consolidation
Within the first two decades of coming to power Harihara I came to rule much of the area south of Tungabhadra river. He gained titles like Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara or master of the eastern and western oceans. His patronage of Sringeri Peetha started from his 1346 grant to build the Vidyasharnaka temple there. His four brothers became governors of various regions of the kingdom. By 1371 Bukka Raya who succeeded Harihara I defeated the chiefdom of Arcot (1360), Reddis of Kodavidu and Sultan of Madurai and annexed it into the kingdom.[15] By 1374, the regions of Goa, Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab came under their control. The island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the Ming dynasty of China[16].

Vijayanagar Kingdom was now beginning to look like an imperial empire. His second son Harihara II defeated the Bahmani Sultan Mujahid and captured ports of Goa, Chaul and Dabhol in North Konkan, Udayagiri in north eastern Andhra and defeated the Velamas of Rachakonda north of the Krishna river. The whole of South India now was under the Vijayanagar umbrella.[17] Deva Raya I was the next capable ruler who fought the Gajapatis of Orissa successfully. Great works of fortification and irrigation were under taken during his time.[18] Deva Raya II, possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers took control in 1424. He was called Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants.[19] His rule saw success against the Gajapatis of Orissa and Reddys' of Kondavidu, Zamorin of Calicut who though may not have been in direct control may have paid tributes, Quilon, and even an invasion of Lanka brought rich tributes. Even the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim paid tributes.[20] Persian traveller Abdur Razzak who travelled in Vijayanagar in 1443 C.E. paid rich tributes to the king and his empire.[21] His rule also saw the patronage of many scholars in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit. The next forty years saw the decline of the empire due to weak rulers and a lot of territory was lost. They were followed by an able commander Saluva Narasimha in 1485 under whose rule a serious attempt was made to reconsolidate the empire. Sripadaraya, the Madhwa Haridasa was his able Rajguru. He was followed by his able general Narasa Nayaka, son of Tuluva Isvara in 1491 who took proxy control of the empire and fought many wars to prevent disintegration of the empire. After nearly two decades of trying to bring rebellious chieftains under control, The empire eventually came under the rule of the able son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, Krishnadevaraya.[22]



[edit] The empire at its peak
In the following decades, the Vijayanagar empire dominated all of southern India having grown into a powerful empire. The empire during that period served as a bulwark against invasion from the Turkic Sultanates of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and remained in constant competition and conflict with the five Deccan Sultanates that established themselves in the Deccan to the north of it.[23]

In about 1510, Goa, which had been under the rule of the Sultan of Bijapur, was captured by the Portuguese, possibly with the approval or connivance of Vijayanagara. Commerce between the Portuguese and Vijayanagara became very important to both sides.

The empire is generally considered to have reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya.[24] During this time, Vijayanagar armies were successful and victorious everywhere. The annexation of Bijapur, Raichur and Bidar, conquer of territories on the east of the Deccan that belonged previously to Orissa including Kalinga, the acceptance of Vijayanagar supremacy by the rebellious feudatories of Kondavidu, Rachakonda, Ummatur and chiefs of Tamil country all brought the whole of South India under one umbrella.[25] Many of the great monuments of the empire either were completed or commissioned during his time. Among these are the Hazara Rama temple, the Krishna temple and the Ugra Narasimha idol, all at Vijayanagara.[26]

Krishna Deva Raya was followed by Achyuta Raya in 1530. In 1542, Achyuta was succeeded by Sada Siva Raya. But the real power lay with Aliya Rama Raya, son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya (of the fourth dynasty, who followed him), who seems to have made a point of unnecessarily provoking the Deccan sultanates, so that eventually they allied against him. However some historians disagree with this. They believe Rama Raya's involvement in Sultanate affairs was with the best interests of Vijayanagar itself.[27]



[edit] Defeat

courtyard pillars HampiIn 1565, at the battle of Talikota, after what seemed like an easy victory for Vijayanagar, the sudden capture and killing of Rama Raya created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagar army. The army of Vijayanagara was routed by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates who attacked and plundered Hampi reducing it to ruins as it stands today. With this, the last significant Hindu state in the Deccan came to an end. Tirumala Raya, the sole survivor left Vijayanagar with treasure on back of 550 elephants to Penukonda. Though the battle is called "Battle of Talikota", some scholars say the war was actually fought in between two towns Rakkasagi and Tangadigi in modern Bijapur district close to Talikota and is also called "Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi"[28], while another scholar claims Bannihatti was the actual battle ground.[29] Many theories have been proposed for the sudden defeat but the most prominent cause seems to be betrayal by two commanders called Gilani brothers who were employed by Rama Raya.[30] Regarding the pillage of Vijayanagara, though some scholars say this was in revenge for similar atrocities committed by Rama Raya in the Sultanate kingdoms earlier, this theory has not found too much support because it is well known that Rama Raya was a secular man and that many Muslims had been promoted to very high cadre in his government.

Vijayanagara is considered by many today, especially in the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, to have been a golden age of culture and learning.

Main article: Battle of Talikota

[edit] Decline
While the empire still continued to have some power, and commanded respect, it went into a steady decline, with the capital being changed on three occasions. It is known however that they continued to trade with the Portuguese, and that they gave the British the land grant that enabled the establishment of Madras. The Telugu work Vasucharitamu refers to Tirumala (Aliya Tirumala, another son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya), the first of the Aravidu line of coronated rulers as the reviver of the Karnata Empire.[31] He is said to have crowned himself as king in 1570 at Penukonda. His brother Aliya Rama Raya was the first from the Aravidu family to rule in Vijayanagara but without official coronation. After the defeat at Talikota, Tirumala fled to Penukonda in present day Andhra Pradesh and ruled a highly reduced empire. He was succeeded by his son Sriranga I during whose rule the empire shrank further. Next came his brother Venkata II who made Chandragiri his capital. He was an able ruler and repulsed the invasion of the Bahamani Sultans and saved Penukonda from being captured. His death brought internal revolt for succession and finally Ramadeva took power and ruled till 1632. After his death, the grandson of Aliya Rama Raya, Venkata III became king and ruled for about ten years. During the rule of Sriranga III, Vellore had become the capital and the empire came to an end with a successful invasion of Vijayanagar territory by the Sultan of Bijapur and Golkonda. Following this, the largest feudatories of the erstwhile empire, the Nayakas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the kingdom of Mysore became the main powers in South India.


[edit] Religion

Rangamantapa, Black Granite pillars HampiMain article: Haridasas of Vijayanagar Empire
The empire was born with the intention of protecting Hindu dharma from the onslaughts of the Mugal invasion of South India. However, like true Hindus, the kings of the empire were tolerant to all religions and sects. They did not discriminate against Muslims and Christians. The travelogues of many foreign visitors to the empire attests to this.[32]

The Vijayanagar kings used titles like Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya, Hindurayasuratrana, Vaidikamarga Samsthapanacharya which gives an idea of their intention to protect Hinduism. The founders of the empire Harihara I and Bukka Raya I were Shaiva Hindus but were patronised Vaishnava Sringeri Peetha with Vidyaranya as their patron saint. They made Varaha (boar, an avatar of Vishnu) their emblem. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings including Krishnadevaraya were Sri Vaishnava but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi and Lord Venkateshwara at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by king Krishnadevaraya calls Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani (Protective jewel of Karnata Empire).[33] They patronised the saints of the dvaita Madhvacharya peetha at Udupi.[34]

The Haridasa movement presented, like the Virashaiva movement, another strong current of bhakthi, pervading the lives of millions. Thus the haridasas presented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhwacharya through Kannada language to the people in the form of Devaranamas and Kirthanas. The philosophy of Madhvacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Vyasatirtha, Naraharitirtha, Padmanabha Tirtha, Akshobhya Tirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha and others. In the 15th. century, the haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya of Mulbagal but his disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with the Vijayanagar Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force.[35] His eminent disciples were Sri Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Father of Carnatic music)[36] and Kanakadasa. Vyasathirtha was the guru of Krishnadevaraya who considered the saint his Kuladevata and highly honoured him.[37] During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Tallapakam Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Tirupati.[38] Together, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya and Vadirajatirtha are called the Yathi Trayaru or the holy Trinity.[39]


[edit] Literature
Main article: Vijayanagar Literature
The Vijayanagar era is considered a golden age of arts and cultural developments. Great works in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were written. A magnificent epoch in the history of South India, the period saw the rise of Telugu language as a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya.



[edit] Kannada
The Vijayanagar era continued the ancient tradition of Kannada literature.[40] In Kannada, famous Jain poets were Madhura (patronised by Harihara II and Deva Raya I), Ratnakaravarni and others. Virashaiva literature saw a renaissance with many famous works by Singiraja, Mallanarya (who was patronised by Krishnadevaraya). Deva Raya II patronised several Virashaivas like Lakkana Dandesa, Chamarasa, Jakkanarya. Tontada Siddesvara was the guru of Virupaksha Raya II. Famous among Vaishnava scholars were, Kumara Vyasa (patronised by Deva Raya II), Timmanna Kavi and Chatu Vittalanatha patronised by Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Raya, Narahari and Kanakadasa. Purandaradasa (who was patronised by Achyuta Raya) and Kanakadasa wrote Dasa Sahithya and Keerthanas sowing the seeds of carnatic music. Nanjunda, Kereya Padmarasa, Mangaraja and Linganna were other famous poets.



[edit] Telugu
The Vijayanagar period was the golden age of Telugu literature.[41] Famous among Telugu scholars were Srinatha (who was patronised by the Kondavidu Reddy Kings and Sangama brothers), Mallayya, Singayya, Vishvanatha Nayani and Nachanna Soma (who was patronised by Bukka Raya I). During the reign of Krishnadevaraya Telugu culture and literature flourished and reached their heyday. The great emperor was himself a celebrated poet having composed Amuktamalyada. In his court, eight Telugu poets were regarded as the eight pillars of the literary assembly. These poets were Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramambhadrudu, Pingali Surana, Ramarajabhushanudu, and Tenali Ramakrishna.



[edit] Sanskrit
Sanskrit literature was given state patronage by the Vijayanagar kings.[42] Some important scholars were Sayana, Madhva Vidyaranya, the spiritual force behind the founding empire, Devanna Bhatta, Gangadevi and Tirumalamba Devi, Rajanatha Dindima, Rajanatha Dindima II, Vedanta Desika, Gunda Dindima and Gangambika. Some Vijayanagar kings were also scholars. Deva Raya I, Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, Krishnadevaraya were accomplished scholars in Sanskrit. Krishnadevaraya also patronised Tamil poets[43] Haridasa, Arunagirinatha, Svarupananda Deshika, Tattuvaraya, Pugalendi, Jnanprakashar, Andari, Kacchiyappa Shivacharya and Ilanjuriyar.


[edit] Architecture
See also: Vijayanagar Architecture, Vijayanagara, and Hampi

Lord Rama breaking Shiva's bow, Hampi
Inside the Hazara Rama temple Hampi
Watch tower, secular style HampiThe architecture of Vijayanagar Empire is considered by many historians as a vibrant combination of Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles.[44] They left behind a legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting that influenced the development of arts long after the empire came to an end. The hallmark of their style was the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa, Vasanthamantapa and the towering Rayagopura. The use of locally available granite was popularised and favoured over the previously popular soapstone or other materials. This was in fact due to an imperative need for durability rather than sculptability, the kingdom being under constant threat of invasions. While their monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air museum of monuments at their regal capital at Vijayanagar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[45] During the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or deccan style monuments but during the 15th. century a slow transition occurred when they incorporated dravida style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka I, Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan style temples.[46] The varied and intricate treatment given to various style of pillars was their special feature.[47] At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the epitome of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a more modest but perfectly finished example of this style.[48] The conspicuous feature of their style was the return of simplistic and serene art of the Badami Chalukya.[49] The grandest specimen of Vijayanagar art, the Vitthala temple shows patronage given to it during the entire reign of the Tuluva kings.[50]

Other important features of Vijayanagar style was the creation of large monolithics like the Sasivekalu Ganesha, Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi, Gomoteshwara statues in Karkala and Venur in coastal Karnataka, the Nandi bull in Lepakshi (the largest in India), Andhra Pradesh. Vijayanagar temples of Bhatkal, and other towns of coastal Karnataka, Kanakagiri, Sringeri in malnad Karnataka, Tadpatri and Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh, Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are also great examples of their style.

The Vijayanagar style also includes paintings. Paintings of Dasavathara and Girijakalyana in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, Shivapurana paintings at Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi and paintings at the Jains basadi, Kamaskshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi are some examples.[51]

Historians feel that keeping in pitch with the task at hand of protecting Hindu dharma, South Indian architecture attained richness and fulfillment. In the Vijayanagar architecture, the art of decoration perhaps surpassed anything else similar in Hindu India, the Vitthala temple reaching the extreme zenith of artistic fervor. A certain freshness seemed to have evolved to break a static spell in Hindu rock architecture.[52]

Some structures in Hampi also exhibit secular architecture with mixing of Hindu and Islamic styles. A dimension of the Vijayanagar architecture that brings out the cosmopolitan lifestyle of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic influence. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagar empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that betray this influence. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers indicates they were for use by royalty.[53] The decorative details of these secular structures seem to have migrated into Vijayanagara during the rule of Firuz Shah and Ahamad Shah of the Bahamani kingdoms. This period coincides with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II who are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of harmony between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.[54] Even the great platform called Mahanavmi dibba has relief carvings which appear to depict figures of central Asian Turks. It is well known that these Turks were employed as royal attendants.[55]


[edit] Background

Natural fortress, Hampi
Chalukya pillars and dravida vimana, Hampi
[edit] Land
The principality of Vijayanagar from its outermost fortification consists of Anegondi in the north to the town of Hospet in the south covering in total about 650 km².[56] The core area of Vijayanagar covers around 25 km². The surroundings of the city are magnificent. The Tungabhadra flows through a rocky terrain with massive boulders piled up in fantastic formations. This landscape is a naturally inaccessible fortification. In addition, man made fortifications surrounded the regal city in several layers.[57] The rocky hilloks made excellent sentinel points or watch towers. The boulders provided raw material for temple construction activities. Going south from the river, the rocky landscape disappears replaced by flat cultivable land. Here is where the massive temple complexes are situated. The largest populations were located to the south of the irrigated lands, fed by clever ducts and anecut channeling water to the capital from the river. At its peak, Vijayanagara may have had up to a million residents.



[edit] Legend
There are two important legends associated with Hampi, the core area of Vijayanagar. One legend has it that a local goddess called Pampa married Virupaksha (Lord Shiva) on the Hemakuta Hill and hence came to be considered an incarnation of Parvati. From Pampa came the name Pampe or in Kannada Hampe. The other legend draws from the Hindu epic Ramayana. Lord Rama and Lakshmana came looking for Sita to the area, the location of the ancient capital of Kishkindha and met Hanuman on the Rishyamuka Hill. Then followed a covenant between Sugreeva, the monkey king in exile and Lord Rama to mutually help each other in finding Sita and getting rid of evil king Vali. The agreement is celebrated by the presence of the only temple in India with idols of Lord Rama, Lakshmana and Sugreeva. Hanuman himself is said to have been born on Anjenadri Hill, near Tungabhadra river facing Hampi.[58] Archaeologically, Hampi traces back to neolithic settlements. There is sufficient inscriptional evidence that in more recent times the area came under the rule of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and finally the tiny kingdom of Kampili.



[edit] Choice of Capital
Main articles: Ancient City of Vijayanagara and Life in Vijayanagar Empire
The legendary associations of the area with Lord Virupaksha (Harihara and Bukka Raya being of Shaiva faith) and Lord Rama, the personification of the perfect king was not lost to the founders of the empire. Its natural ruggedness and inaccessibility must have all been reasons to choose this area as the capital of the new empire.[59] During the rule of the empire, Vijayanagara came to known as one of the most beautiful cities in India.[60] An copper plate inscription (Tamarashasana) of Marappa, one of the Sangama brothers dated 1346 gives the Sangama genealogy and identifies family deity (gotradhidaivam) of the Sangama family as Lord Virupaksha[61] Many inscriptions attesting the elevation of Lord Virupaksha to Rashtra devata (God of the Kingdom) have been found. By the time of Bukka I, the capital had already grown into a great capital. An inscription calls it great Nagari named Vijaya situated in Hemakuta.[62].



[edit] Coins and Inscriptions
The Empire minted coins with Devanagari, Kannada and Telugu legends[63], usually giving the name of the ruler. The empire had its mints in Hampi, Penugonda and Tirupati. Gold, silver and copper were used to make coins. Gadyana, Varaha, Pon, Pagoda, Pratapa, Pana, Kasu and Jital were the various coins issued in the Vijayanagar period. The most beautiful Vijayanagar coins were those with the images of various gods and goddesses and animals and birds. The earliest coins feature Hanuman and the Garuda (divine eagle), the mount of Lord Vishnu. The Vijayanagar rulers also issued gold coins featuring divine couples. Venkatapatiraya III, one of the last Vijayanagar rulers, minted coins showing Vishnu with Sridevi and Bhudevi. Krishnadevaraya issued many coins featuring Balakrishna. He issued these coins after he built a Krishna Temple at Hampi and installed in it an image of Krishna that he had brought from Udayagiri after conquering it from the Gajapati ruler of Orissa. On these coins, the playful Krishna is seen seated. Lord Venkateshwara, the presiding deity of the temple at Tirumala (Tirupati), also figures on Vijayanagar coins. A rare copper coin of the Vijayanagar ruler Sriranga I shows a standing figure of the emperor with a sword in his hand. Another rare copper coin issued by Sadasivaraya shows a fully caparisoned galloping horse. The elephant and the bull too appear on many Vijayanagar coins. Kannada and Telugu inscriptions have been deciphered and recorded by historians.[64]


[edit] Successors of Vijayanagar empire
After the decline of the empire, The Nayaka feudatories gained independence. They were the Nayakas in Karnataka and TamilNadu. They made a major impact in the later political scene. Among them the Madurai Nayaks ruled till 1734, The kingdom of Mysore lasted until Indian independence in 1947, although during the later part of their rule, from 1799 CE., they came under the British Raj. The Keladi and Chitradurga Nayakas also ruled till the end of 18th. century.

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