How did Britain and China influence the world?

Answer 1

http://courses.wcupa.edu/wanko/LIT400/China/index.htm
http://chinesefood.about.com/library/weekly/aa051799.htm?terms=wood+world+furniture
http://marxists.anu.edu.au/archive/james-clr/works/world/ch09.htm
http://www.travelingarmchair.com/food/macao-fusion.htm
Information in the form of invention and discovery is often shared (or incorporated) due to the nature of the perceived value to others. Technology exchange can begin any time new ideas are demonstrated, and of course no records exist for the vast number of interactions of civilizations over the centuries. Marco Polo's travels to China in the 13th century offered Western society a look at undiscovered (to them) goods and ideas. Ideas and inventions often were added to the "native" culture with little notice of the origination. One of the greatest secrets of history is the immense contribution of Chinese society to the Western world. Equally interesting, is the failure of some discovery in China to cross over to Western civilization, or even to survive into modern times. For example, a small pox vaccination was used in China in the 10th century, and then 800 years later in the West. However, the practice of modern diagnostic medicine was not widespread in China in more modern times. The mechanical clock was invented in China in the 8th century, and then independently in Europe in 1310. When the Chinese imperial court was shown a mechanical clock by Jesuit missionaries in the 17th century, the scholars were awestruck.

It seems that much of Western and Eastern knowledge of Chinese contributions have either been forgotten or overlooked. The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1999, describes in the history of the magnetic compass, that the Chinese were using the magnetic compass around AD 1100, western Europeans by 1187, Arabs by 1220, and Scandinavians by 1300. But we know that Chinese ships reached the east coast of India prior to 1000 with help of the navigational compass.

It really is more accurate to think of accumulation of knowledge of history and culture to be a synthesis of East and West, combined in an all-pervading synthesis of beliefs and understanding, often masked only by ignorance and language.

Early in 2003, a fascinating speculative chronicle on Chinese discovery ( 1421: The Year China Discovered America) was released by the British author/historian/mariner Gavin Menzies, detailing evidence for Chinese exploration of the globe. The voyavges of the massive fleet of the explorer Zheng He, sailing west from China in the fifteenth century is a fascinating story. The author speculates and makes a strong case for Chinese exploration succeeding well beyond what is commonly taught World History (and unfortunately this important Asian history is often completely overlooked). Circumstances and artifacts in several locales serve to support Menzies' case, but much more scrutiny of facts in evidence will be required to validate some of his assertions. However the value in critically examining new ideas expands our understanding, and should not be interpreted as glorification of a specific culture, degrading another, or as gratuitous inclusion of some minority position.

As so much of Chinese history and culture have been buried by the centuries and purged by tyrants, arguments for history are developed by research and conjecture almost totally dependent on circumstantial evidence. My own interpretations of some of this history is presented with a desire to stimulate interest in not only the events and accomplishments, but also the process of using knowledge gained to better the current and future world. Knowledge can be a laudable achievement in its own right, and the application for technology to enhance life quality is often the next step to benefit civilization. I am interested here in what was achieved, how it was used, what was transferred to other cultures, and why sometimes the early discoveries did not lead to even more achievement.

This publication of some of the contributions of China for invention and discovery is an on-going hobby of research into documents that will help to uncover some of these historical mysteries. Much of the ideas and contributions have been taken from the works of Joseph Needham, begun in Cambridge in 1948, and published in many volumes of Science and Civilisation in China (1954-1985). I have cited numerous passages from Robert Temple's The Genius of China - 3,000 years of science, discovery and invention (1986, Simon and Schuster). The timeline is constructed to help us to develop relations and connections of history that can help reach an understanding of how knowledge has been gained, and sometimes lost. Needham's original texts were not available to me for this rather cursory survey, and I often relied on Temple's interpretations, which are sometimes lacking in supporting facts. However, the examples of Chinese Scientism and statements of later Western implementation will hopefully serve as a discussion point for a more detailed query into the connections of ideas leading to worldwide technology. Consider Needham's and Temple's list of discoveries and inventions by categories below, that have contributed so much to world societies.

Agricultural

Row Cultivation of crops and intensive hoeing
The Iron Plow
Efficient Horse Harness - trace; collar
The Rotary Winnowing Fan
The multi-tube ('modern') seed drill
Astronomy & Cartography

Recognition of sunspots as solar phenomena
Quantitative cartography
Discovery of the Solar Wind
The Mercator map-projection
(Mounted) Equatorial astronomical instruments
Engineering

Spouting bowls and standing waves
Cast iron
The double-acting piston bellows: air, liquid
The Crank handle
The 'Cardan suspension', or gimbals
Manufacture of steel from cast iron
Deep drilling for natural gas
The belt drive (or driving-belt)
Water Power
The chain pump
The Suspension Bridge
The first cybernetic machine
Essentials of the steam engine
'Magic Mirrors'
The 'Siemens' steel process
The segmental arch bridge
The chain-drive
Underwater salvage operations
Domestic & Industrial Technology

Lacquer: the first plastic
Strong beer (sake)
Petroleum and natural gas as fuel
Paper
The Wheelbarrow
Sliding Calipers
The magic lantern
The fishing reel
The Stirrup
Porcelain
Biological pest control
The umbrella
Matches
Chess
Brandy and whisky
The mechanical clock
Printing - block printing; movable type
Playing-cards
Paper money
'Permanent' lamps
The spinning-wheel
Medicine & Health

Circulation of the blood
Circadian rhythms in the human body
The science of endocrinology
Deficiency diseases
Diabetes discovered by urine analysis
Use of thyroid hormone
Immunology - inoculation against smallpox
Mathematics

The decimal system
A place for 0
Negative numbers
Extraction of higher roots and solutions of higher numerical equations
Decimal fractions
Using algebra in geometry
A refined value of pi
'Pascal's' triangle of binomial coefficients
Magnetism

The first compass
Dial and pointer devices
Magnetic declination of the Earth's magnetic field
Magnetic remanence and induction
The Physical Sciences

Geobotanical prospecting
The First Law of Motion
The hexagonal structure of snowflakes
The seismograph
Spontaneous combustion
'Modern' geology
Phosphorescent paint
Transport & Exploration

The kite
Manned flight with kites
The first relief maps
The first contour transport canal
The parachute
Miniature hot-air balloons
The rudder
Masts and sailing: Batten sails - staggered masts; Multiple masts - Fore and aft rigs; Leeboards; Watertight compartments in ships
The helicopter rotor and the propeller
The paddlewheel boat
Land sailing
The canal pound-lock
Sound & Music

The large tuned bell
Tuned drums
Hermetically sealed research laboratories
The first understanding of musical timbre
Equal temperament in music
Warfare

Chemical warfare: poison gas, smoke bombs and tear gas
The crossbow
Gunpowder
The flame-thrower
Flares and fireworks
Soft bombs and grenades
Metal-cased bombs
Land mines
Sea mines
The rocket
Mutli-staged rockets
Guns, cannons, and mortars - fire lance; true gun
Sources:
Robert Temple , "The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery and Invention"
Joseph Needham , "Science and Civilisation in China"
Bibliography used for this research

I do not intend this site to be a blind testimonial to some supremist view of Eastern technology. I am aware that Needham and Temple are often overly enthusiastic regarding their views of Chinese achievements pre-dating some of the West. Often the "discovery" was only an implementation of some aspect of technology with little or no development of the science. Some questions that I would like to explore include:

What were the major factors that turned the advanced civilization (on a large scale) of China two thousand years ago, into the more comparatively undeveloped status of today?
Why were some of the major discoveries of China not refined and advanced to accelerate into more and more technological achievements?
Did the absence of a period of Dark Ages, and subsequent Renaissance serve to inhibit fast dissemination of achievements?
What part did politics, ethics, religion, international conflict, etc., play on the advancement of technology from discovery to national service?

This site will be used to develop and integrate my impressions with others, and hopefully will serve as a collaboration for readers to share our own ideas. For an interesting analytical discussion of some perceptions of influences in the West and the East, check out THE GREAT DIVERGENCE: EUROPE, CHINA, AND THE MAKING OF THE MODERN WORLD ECONOMY by Kenneth Pomeranz, Princeton: Princeton University Press 2000. A review may be found on the Communications for a Sustainable Future site in an article by A.G. Frank.

A site of great interest from the Center for the Study of Chinese Prehistory explores the fossil evidence for human evolution in China.
As I collect information and resources on Chinese invention and discovery, I would be happy to collaborate with other authors.
Send e-mail to [e-mail]
http://www.computersmiths.com/chineseinvention/westdebt.htm

http://www.uwec.edu/geography/Ivogeler/w111/worldmap.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_culture
The culture of the United Kingdom is rich and varied, and has been influential on culture on a worldwide scale.
It is a European state, and has many cultural links with its former colonies, particularly those that use the English language (the Anglosphere). Considerable contributions to British culture have been made over the last half-century by immigrants from the Indian Subcontinent and the West Indies. The origins of the UK as a political union of formerly independent states has resulted in the preservation of distinctive cultures in each of the home nations. The United Kingdom has no official language. English is the main language and the de facto official language, spoken monolingually by an estimated 95% of the UK population.

However, some nations and regions of the UK have frameworks for the promotion of indigenous languages. In Wales, English and Welsh are both widely used by officialdom, and Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. Additionally, the Western Isles council area of Scotland has a policy to promote Scottish Gaelic.

Under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which is not legally enforceable, the UK Government has committed itself to the promotion of certain linguistic traditions. Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish are to be developed in Wales, Scotland and Cornwall respectively. Other native languages afforded such protection include Irish in Northern Ireland, Scots in Scotland and Northern Ireland, where it is known in official parlance as "Ulster Scots" or "Ullans" but in the speech of users simply as "Scotch", and British Sign Language.

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The Arts
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Literature

Sherlock Holmes, played here by Jeremy Brett, was created by British author Arthur Conan Doyle.Main article: British literature
The earliest native literature of the territory of the modern United Kingdom was written in the Celtic languages of the isles. The Welsh literary tradition stretches from the 6th century. Irish poetry also represents a more or less unbroken tradition from the 6th century to the present day, with the Ulster Cycle being of particular relevance to Northern Ireland.

Anglo-Saxon literature includes Beowulf, a national epic, but literature in Latin predominated among educated elites. After the Norman Conquest Anglo-Norman literature brought continental influences to the isles.

English literature emerged as a recognisable entity in the late 14th century, with the rise and spread of the London dialect of Middle English. Geoffrey Chaucer is the first great identifiable individual in English literature: his Canterbury Tales remains a popular 14th-century work which readers still enjoy today.

Following the introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton in 1476, the Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the fields of poetry and drama. From this period, poet and playwright William Shakespeare stands out as arguably the most famous writer in the world.

The English novel became a popular form in the 18th century, with Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740) and Henry Fielding's Tom Jones (1745).

After a period of decline, the poetry of Robert Burns revived interest in vernacular literature, the rhyming weavers of Ulster being especially influenced by literature in Scots from Scotland.

The following two centuries continued a huge outpouring of literary production. In the early 19th century, the Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry comparable with the Renaissance two hundred years earlier, with such poets as William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and Lord Byron. The Victorian period was the golden age of the realistic English novel, represented by Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Emily and Anne), Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy.

World War One gave rise to British war poets and writers such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, Robert Graves and Rupert Brooke who wrote (often paradoxically), of their expectations of war, and/or their experiences in the trench.

The Celtic Revival stimulated new appreciation of traditional Irish literature, however, with the independence of the Irish Free State, Irish literature came to be seen as more clearly separate from the strains of British literature. The Scottish Renaissance of the early 20th century brought modernism to Scottish literature as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots.

The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and was greatly enriched by immigrant writers. It remains today the dominant English literary form.

Other well-known novelists include Arthur Conan Doyle, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell, Salman Rushdie, Mary Shelley, J. R. R. Tolkien, Virginia Woolf and J.K. Rowling.

Important poets include Elizabeth Barrett Browning, T. S. Eliot, Ted Hughes, John Milton, Alfred Tennyson, Rudyard Kipling, Alexander Pope, and Dylan Thomas.

See also:

Anglo-Welsh literature
Cornish literature
English literature
List of English poets
Scottish literature
Welsh literature
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Theatre
The United Kingdom also has a vibrant tradition of theatre. Theatre was introduced to the UK from Europe by the Roman EmpireRomans and auditoriums were constructed across the country for this purpose.

William Shakespeare, chief figure of the English Renaissance, is here seen in the Chandos portrait.]]By the medieval period theatre had developed with the mummers' plays, a form of early street theatre associated with the Morris dance, concentrating on themes such as Saint George and the Dragon and Robin Hood. These were folk tales re-telling old stories, and the actors travelled from town to town performing these for their audiences in return for money and hospitality. The medieval mystery plays and morality plays, which dealt with Christian themes, were performed at religious festivals.

The reign of Elizabeth I in the late 16th and early 17th century saw a flowering of the drama and all the arts. Perhaps the most famous playwright in the world, William Shakespeare, wrote around 40 plays that are still performed in theatres across the world to this day. They include tragedies, such as Hamlet (1603), Othello (1604), and King Lear (1605); comedies, such as A Midsummer Night's Dream (1594—96) and Twelfth Night (1602); and history plays, such as Henry IV, part 1—2. The Elizabethan age is sometimes nicknamed "the age of Shakespeare" for the amount of influence he held over the era. Other important Elizabethan and 17th-century playwrights include Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe, and John Webster.


Aphra Behn was the first professional woman playwright.During the Interregnum 1642—1660, English theatres were kept closed by the Puritans for religious and ideological reasons. When the London theatres opened again with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, they flourished under the personal interest and support of Charles II. Wide and socially mixed audiences were attracted by topical writing and by the introduction of the first professional actresses (in Shakespeare's time, all female roles had been played by boys). New genres of the Restoration were heroic drama, pathetic drama, and Restoration comedy. The Restoration plays that have best retained the interest of producers and audiences today are the comedies, such as William Wycherley's The Country Wife (1676), The Rover (1677) by the first professional woman playwright, Aphra Behn, John Vanbrugh's The Relapse (1696), and William Congreve's The Way of the World (1700). Restoration comedy is famous or notorious for its sexual explicitness, a quality encouraged by Charles II (1660–1685) personally and by the rakish aristocratic ethos of his court.

In the 18th century, the highbrow and provocative Restoration comedy lost favour, to be replaced by sentimental comedy, domestic tragedy such as George Lillo's The London Merchant (1731), and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera. Popular entertainment became more important in this period than ever before, with fair-booth burlesque and mixed forms that are the ancestors of the English music hall. These forms flourished at the expense of legitimate English drama, which went into a long period of decline. By the early 19th century it was no longer represented by stage plays at all, but by the closet drama, plays written to be privately read in a "closet" (a small domestic room).

A change came in the late 19th century with the plays on the London stage by the Irishmen George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde and the Norwegian Henrik Ibsen, all of whom influenced domestic English drama and vitalised it again.

Today the West End of London has a large number of theatres, particularly centred around Shaftesbury Avenue. A prolific composer of the 20th century Andrew Lloyd Webber has dominated the West End for a number of years and his musicals have travelled to Broadway in New York and around the world, as well as being turned into films.

The Royal Shakespeare Company operates out of Shakespeare's birthplace Stratford-upon-Avon in England, producing mainly but not exclusively Shakespeare's plays.

Important modern playwrights include Alan Ayckbourn, John Osborne, Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, and Arnold Wesker.


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Music

Possibly the most famous band the world has ever seen, The Beatles grew up in LiverpoolMain article: Music of the United Kingdom

Composers William Byrd, Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, John Blow, Henry Purcell, Edward Elgar, Arthur Sullivan, William Walton, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten and Michael Tippett have made major contributions to British music, and are known internationally. Living composers include John Tavener, Harrison Birtwistle, Andrew Lloyd Webber, and Oliver Knussen.

Britain also supports a number of major orchestras including the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia, the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Because of its location and other economic factors, London is one of the most important cities for music in the world: it has several important concert halls and is also home to the Royal Opera House, one of the world's leading opera houses. British traditional music has also been very influential abroad.

The UK was, with the US, one of the two main countries in the development of rock and roll, and has provided bands including The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, The Who, Pink Floyd, Queen, Elton John, Iron Maiden, Status Quo, The Smiths, the Sex Pistols, the Manic Street Preachers, The Cure, Oasis, Blur, Radiohead and Coldplay. It has provided inspiration for many modern bands today, including Kaiser Chiefs, Bloc Party, Arctic Monkeys and Franz Ferdinand. Since then it has also pioneered in various forms of electronic dance music including acid house, drum and bass and trip hop, all of which were in whole or part developed in the United Kingdom. Acclaimed British dance acts include Underworld, Orbital, Massive Attack, The KLF, The Prodigy, The Chemical Brothers and Portishead.

Britpop
List of Britpop musicians
List of British blues musicians
List of British pop musicians of the 1980s
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Broadcasting
Main articles: Cinema of the United Kingdom, Radio in the United Kingdom, Television in the United Kingdom

Britain has been at the forefront of developments in film, radio, and television.

Many important films have been produced in Britain over the last century, and a large number of significant actors and film-makers have emerged. Currently the main film production centres are at Shepperton and Pinewood Studios.

Broadcasting in Britain has historically been dominated by the BBC, although independent radio and television (ITV, Channel 4, Five) and satellite broadcasters (especially BSkyB) have become more important in recent years. BBC television, and the other three main television channels are public service broadcasters who, as part of their license allowing them to operate, broadcast a variety of minority interest programming. The BBC and Channel 4 are state-owned, though they operate independently.

Britain has a large number of national and local radio stations which cover a great variety of programming. The most listened to stations are the five main national BBC radio stations. BBC Radio 1, a new music station aimed at the 16-24 age group. BBC Radio 2, a varied popular music and chat station aimed at adults is consistently highest in the ratings. BBC Radio 4, a varied talk station, is noted for its news, current affairs, drama and comedy output as well as The Archers, its long running soap opera, and other unique programmes. The BBC, as a public service broadcaster, also runs minority stations such as BBC Asian Network, BBC 1xtra and BBC 6 Music, and local stations throughout the country.

List of British radio channels
List of British television channels
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Visual Art
Main article: Art of the United Kingdom
The oldest art in the United Kingdom can be dated to the Neolithic period, and is found in a funerary context. But it is in the Bronze age that the first innovative artworks are found. The Beaker people, who arrived in Britain around 2500 BC, were skilled in metal refining. At first, they worked mainly in copper, but around 2150 BC they learned how to make bronze. As there was a ready supply of tin in Cornwall and Devon, they were able to make take advantage of this new process. They were also skilled in the use of gold, and especially the Wessex culture excelled in the making of gold ornaments. Works of art placed in graves or sacrificial pits have survived, showing both innovation and high skill. Anglo-Saxon sculpting was outstanding for its time in the 11th century, as proved by pre-Norman ivory carvings. [1]

In the Iron Age, the Celtic culture spread in the British isles, and with them a new art style. Metalwork, especially gold ornaments, was still important, but stone and most likely wood was also used. This style continued into the Roman period, and would find a renaissance in the Medieval period. It also survived in the Celtic areas not occupied by the Romans, largely corresponding to the present-day Wales and Scotland.


Thomas Gainsborough's Blue boy, painted 1770The Romans, arriving in the 1st century BC, brought with them the Classical style. Many monuments have survived, especially funerary monuments, statues and busts. They also brought glasswork and mosaics. In the 4th century, a new element was introduced as the first Christian art was made in Britain. Several mosaics with Christian symbols and pictures have been preserved. The style of Romano-British art follows that of the continent, but there are some local specialities, to some extent influenced by Celtic art.

Roman rule was replaced by a number of kingdoms with different cultural backgrounds. The Celtic fringe gained back some of the power lost in the Roman period, and the Celtic style again became a factor influencing art all over Britain. Other peoples, such as the Saxons, Jutes and Danes, brought with them Germanic and Scandinavian art styles. Celtic and Scandinavian art have several common elements, such as the use of intricate, intertwined patterns of decoration. Leaving the debate over which style influenced the other most aside, it seems reasonable to say that in Britain the different style to some extent fused into a British Celtic-Scandinavian hybrid.


The Grand Canal, Venice by J. M. W. Turner, painted 1835.Christianity, before the religion of parts of the Roman ruling class, started spreading among the peoples of Britain from the end of the 6th century. There was little change in the art style at first, but new elements were added. The Celtic high crosses are well-known examples of the use of Celtic patterns in Christian art. Scenes from the Bible were depicted, framed with the ancient patterns. Some ancient symbols were redefined, such as the many Celtic symbols that can easily be interpreted as referring to the Holy Trinity. One new form of art that was introduced was mural paintings. Christianity provided two elements needed for this art form to take root: Monks who were familiar with the techniques, and stone churches with white-chalked walls suitable for murals. As the artists were often foreign monks, or lay artists trained on the continent, the style is very close to that of continental art. Another art form introduced through the church was stained glass, which was also adopted for secular uses.

The English Renaissance, starting in the early 16th century, was a parallel to the Italian Renaissance, but did not develop in exactly the same way. It was mainly concerned with music and literature; in art and architecture the change was not as clearly defined as in the continent. Painters from the continent continued to find work in Britain, and brought the new styles with them, especially the Flemish and Italian Renaissance styles.


The Peacock SkirtAs a reaction to abstract expressionism, pop art emerged originally in England at the end of the 1950s.

New York-born Sir Jacob Epstein was a pioneer of modern sculpture, boldly challenging taboos through his public works.

Notable visual artists from the United Kingdom include John Constable, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Gainsborough, William Blake and J.M.W. Turner. In the 20th century, Francis Bacon, David Hockney, Bridget Riley, and the pop artists Richard Hamilton and Peter Blake were of note.

More recently, the so-called Young British Artists have gained some notoriety, particularly Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin.

Notable illustrators include Aubrey Beardsley, Roger Hargreaves, and Beatrix Potter.

Notable arts institutions include the Allied Artists' Association, Royal College of Art, Artists' Rifles, Royal Society of Arts, New English Art Club, Slade School of Art, Royal Academy, and the Tate Gallery.

See also: English art

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Architecture
Main article: Architecture of the United Kingdom
The earliest remnants of architecture in the United Kingdom are mainly neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury, and Roman ruins such as the spa in Bath. Many castles remain from the medieval period and in most towns and villages the parish church is an indication of the age of the settlement, built as they were from stone rather than the traditional wattle and daub.

Over the two centuries following the Norman conquest of 1066, and the building of the Tower of London, many great castles such as Caernarfon Castle in Wales and Carrickfergus Castle in Ireland were built to suppress the natives. Large houses continued to be fortified until the Tudor period, when the first of the large gracious unfortified mansions such as the Elizabethan Montacute House and Hatfield House were built.

The Civil War 1642—49 proved to be the last time in British history that houses had to survive a siege. Corfe Castle was destroyed following an attack by Oliver Cromwell's army, but Compton Wynyates survived a similar ordeal. After this date houses were built purely for living, and design and appearance were for ever more important than defence.

Just prior to the Civil War, Inigo Jones, who is regarded as the first significant British architect, came to prominence. He was responsible for importing the Palladian manner of architecture to Britain from Italy; the Queen's House at Greenwich is perhaps his best surviving work.


St Paul's Cathedral was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and built between 1675 and 1708.Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the Great Fire of London in 1666 an opportunity was missed in London to create a new metropolitan city, featuring modern architectural styles. Although one of the best known British architects, Sir Christopher Wren, was employed to design and rebuild many of the ruined ancient churches of London, his master plan for rebuilding London as a whole was rejected. It was in this period that he designed the building that he is perhaps best known for, St Paul's Cathedral.

In the early 18th century baroque architecture—popular in Europe—was introduced, and Blenheim Palace was built in this era. However, baroque was quickly replaced by a return of the Palladian form. The Georgian architecture of the 18th century was an evolved form of Palladianism. Many existing buildings such as Woburn Abbey and Kedleston Hall are in this style. Among the many architects of this form of architecture and its successors, neoclassical and romantic, were Robert Adam, Sir William Chambers, and James Wyatt.

In the early 19th century the romantic medieval gothic style appeared as a backlash to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. By the middle of the 19th century, as a result of new technology, construction was able to develop incorporating steel as a building component; one of the greatest exponents of this was Joseph Paxton, architect of the Crystal Palace. Paxton also continued to build such houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular retrospective Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity and development British architecture embraced many new methods of construction, but ironically in style, such architects as August Pugin ensured it remained firmly in the past.

At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of design arts and crafts became popular, the architectural form of this style, which had evolved from the 19th century designs of such architects as George Devey, was championed by Edwin Lutyens. Arts and crafts in architecture is symbolized by an informal, non symmetrical form, often with mullioned or lattice windows, multiple gables and tall chimneys. This style continued to evolve until World War II.

Following the Second World War reconstruction went through a variety of phases, but was heavily influenced by Modernism, especially from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. Many bleak town centre redevelopments—criticised for featuring hostile, concrete-lined "windswept plazas"—were the fruit of this interest, as were many equally bleak public buildings, such as the Hayward Gallery. Many Modernist inspired town centres are today in the process of being redeveloped, Bracknell town centre being a case in point.

However, it should not be forgotten that in the immediate post-War years many thousands (perhaps hundreds of thousands) of council houses in vernacular style were built, giving working class people their first experience of private gardens and indoor sanitation.

Modernism remains a significant force in UK architecture, although its influence is felt predominantly in commercial buildings. The two most prominent proponents are Lord Rogers of Riverside and Lord Foster of Thames Bank. Rogers' iconic London buildings are probably Lloyd's Building and the Millennium Dome, while Foster created the Swiss Re Buildings (aka The Gherkin) and the Greater London Authority H.Q.

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Science and technology
Ever since the scientific revolution, the United Kingdom has been prominent in world scientific and technological development. The philosopher Francis Bacon put forward his Baconian method in his 1620 book, Novum Organum. This method promoted empiricism and induction in scientific enquiry and was one of the driving forces behind the scientific revolution.


Newton's Principia is one of the most influential works in the history of science.Possibly the most famous of all British scientists, Isaac Newton, is considered by historians of science to have crowned and ended the scientific revolution with the 1687 publication of his Principia Mathematica, which ushers in what is recognisable as modern physics. He is most famous for realising that the same force is responsible for movements of celestial and terrestrial bodies, that is gravity. It is commonly reported that he made this realisation when he was sitting underneath an apple tree and was hit on the head by a falling apple; this story is, however, apocryphal. He is also famous as the father of classical mechanics, formulated as his three laws and as the co-inventor (with Gottfried Leibniz) of differential calculus. Less famously, he also created the binomial theorem, worked extensively on optics, and created a law of cooling.

Since Newton's time, figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science. Examples include Michael Faraday, who, with James Clerk Maxwell, unified the electric and magnetic forces in what are now known as Maxwell's equations; James Joule, who worked extensively in thermodynamics and is often credited with the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy; Paul Dirac, one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics; Charles Darwin, author of On the Origin of Species and discoverer of the principle of evolution by natural selection; and Harold Kroto, the discoverer of buckminsterfullerene.

Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either Oxford or Cambridge University, with laboratories such as the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford becoming famous in their own right. In modern times, other institutions such as the Red Brick and New Universities are catching up with Oxbridge. For instance, Lancaster University has a global reputation for work in low temperature physics. The Royal Society serves as the national academy for sciences, with members drawn from many different institutions and disciplines. Formed in 1660, it is the oldest learned society still in existence.

Technologically, the UK is also amongst the world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of the industrial revolution, with innovations especially in textiles, the steam engine, railroads and civil engineering. Famous British engineers and inventors from this period include James Watt, Robert Stephenson, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Richard Arkwright.

Since then, the United Kingdom has continued this tradition of technical creativity. Alan Turing, Frank Whittle (inventor of the jet engine), Charles Babbage (who devised the idea of the computer) and Alexander Fleming (discoverer of penicillin) were all British. The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations today, providing inventions as diverse as the World Wide Web and Viagra (created by Tim Berners-Lee and Pfizer respectively).

Other famous scientists, engineers and inventors from the UK include: John Logie Baird, William Caxton, Richard Trevithick, Robert Hooke, Humphry Davy, Robert Watson-Watt, Henry Bessemer and others.

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Religion
Main article: Religion in the United Kingdom

Although today one of the most 'secularised' states in the world, the United Kingdom is traditionally a Christian country, with two of the Home nations having official faiths:

Anglicanism, in the form of the Church of England, is the Established Church in England. The Queen is Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
Presbyterianism (Church of Scotland) is the official faith in Scotland.
The Anglican Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920.
The Anglican Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1871.
Other religions followed in the UK include Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism. While 2001 census information [2] suggests that over 75 percent of UK citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion, Gallup International reports that only 10 percent of UK citizens regularly attend religious services, compared to 15 percent of French citizens and 57 percent of American citizens. A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44 percent of UK citizens believe in God, while 35 percent do not [3]. The disparity between the census data and the YouGov data has been put down to a phenomenon described as "cultural Christianity", whereby many who do not believe in God still identify with the religion they were bought up as, or the religion of their parents.

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Food
Main article: British cuisine

Although there is ample evidence of a rich and varied approach to cuisine during earlier historical periods (particularly so amongst wealthy citizens), during much of the 19th and 20th century Britain had a reputation for somewhat conservative cuisine. The stereotype of the native cuisine was of a diet progressing little beyond stodgy meals consisting of "meat and two veg". Even today, in more conservative areas of the country, "meat and two veg" cuisine is still the favoured choice at the dinner table.

Traditional British fare usually includes dishes such as fish and chips, roast dishes of beef, lamb, chicken and pork, as well as regional dishes such as the Cornish pasty and Lancashire Hotpot.

On 8 January 1940, four months after the outbreak of World War II, a system of food Rationing was introduced to conserve stocks and feed the nation during the critical war years. Rationing persisted until July 4, 1954 [4] when a fourteen year period of relative privation (which profoundly affected a generation of people attitude to 'a culture of food') finally came to an end. With the end of rationing, Britain's diet began to change, slowly at first during the 1950s and 1960s under the influence of such people as Elizabeth David, but immeasurably by the closing decades of the 20th century.

During the transitional period of the 1970s, a number of influential figures such as Delia Smith (perhaps Britain's most famous homegrown exponent of good food), began the drive to encourage greater experimentation with the new ingredients (e.g. pasta) increasingly being offered by the supermarkets. The evolution of the British diet was further accelerated with the increasing tendency of the British to travel to continental Europe (and sometimes beyond) for their annual holidays, experiencing new and unfamiliar dishes as they travelled to countries such as France, Italy, and Spain.

Towards the mid to late 1990s and onwards an explosion of talented new 'TV chefs' began to come to prominence, (with figures as diverse as Jamie Oliver, Ainsley Harriott, Ken Hom, Nigella Lawson, Madhur Jaffrey, Nigel Slater, James Martin and Keith Floyd) this brought about a noticeable acceleration in the diversity of cuisine the general public were prepared to try and their general confidence in preparing food that had would once have been considered pure staples of foreign cultures, particularly the Mediterranean European, South and East Asian diets. As a result, a new style of cooking called Modern British emerged.

This process of increased variety and experimentation in food inevitably dovetailed with the very profound impact that the post-war influx of immigrants to the UK (many from Britain's former colonies in the Caribbean and Indian sub-continent) had on the national cuisine. The new communities propelled new and exciting dishes and ingredients onto restaurant tables and into the national consciousness. In many instances, British tastes fused with the new dishes to produce entirely new dishes such as the Balti, an English invention based on Indian cuisine that has since gained popularity across the world. Many of these new dishes have since become deeply embedded in the native culture, culminating in a speech in 2001 by Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, in which he described Chicken Tikka Masala as 'a true British national dish' [5].

With the rich diversity of its peoples and its (arguably) relatively successful attempts at creating a true multicultural society, married to a reputation as an experimental and forward thinking nation, the future of British cuisine looks positive.

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Education

University College, Oxford was founded in the 13th centuryMain article: Education in the United Kingdom

The education system in the United Kingdom varies in important respects between England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Education is devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland.

Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of five and sixteen. Most children in the UK are educated in state funded schools financed through the tax system and so parents do not pay directly for the cost of education.

Less than ten percent of the UK school age population attend independent fee-paying schools. Many prominent independent schools, often founded hundreds of years ago, are known as public schools of which Eton, Harrow and Rugby are three of the better known.

Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsory school uniforms. This is a contentious point with generations of school children who would like to see them abolished, only to support their retention once they become parents, this is due to people wanting to have a 'uniform' appearance in schools and it reduces the brand logo culture from coming out in educational establishments. Due to the multicultural nature of England, some allowances have had to be made in the uniform regulations to accommodate the needs of some families' religious beliefs.

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England
Main article Education in England
Most schools came under state control in the Victorian era, a formal state school system was instituted after the Second World War. Initially schools were separated into infant schools (normally up to age 4 or 5), primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic grammar schools and more vocational secondary modern schools). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to become comprehensive schools.

Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day to day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of Local Education Authorities.

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Northern Ireland
Main article Education in Northern Ireland
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Scotland
Main article Education in Scotland
Scotland has a long history of universal provision of public education, and the Scottish education system is distinctly different from other parts of the United Kingdom. Traditionally, the Scottish system has emphasised breadth across a range of subjects compared to the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has emphasised greater depth of education over a smaller range of subjects at secondary school level.

The majority of schools are non-denominational, but by legislation separate Roman Catholic schools, with an element of control by the Roman Catholic Church, are provided by the state system.

Qualifications at the secondary school and post-secondary (further education) level are provided by the Scottish Qualifications Authority and delivered through various schools, colleges and other centres. Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Executive Education and Enterprise, Transport & Lifelong Learning Departments

Public schools are owned and operated by the local authorities which act as Education Authorities, and the compulsory phase is divided into primary school and secondary school (usually called High school). Schools are supported in delivering the National Guidelines and National Priorities by Learning and Teaching Scotland.

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Wales
Main article Education in Wales
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Higher education
The United Kingdom includes many historic universities. These include the so-called Oxbridge universities (Oxford University and Cambridge University) which are amongst the world's oldest universities and are generally ranked at or near the top of all British universities. Other universities include the University of St Andrews, the oldest university in Scotland. Academic degrees are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class).

Scottish universities generally have courses a year longer than their counterparts elsewhere in the UK, though it is often possible for students to take a more advanced specialised exams and join the courses at the second year. One unique aspect is that the ancient universities of Scotland issue a Master of Arts as the first degree in humanities.

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Sociological issues
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Housing

Terraced houses are typical in inner cities and places of high population densityThe United Kingdom has the third highest population density in Europe after the Netherlands and Belgium, and England alone is higher than all three. Housing tends to be smaller and more closely packed than in other countries, particularly compared to North America.

The British have a particular affinity with the terraced house, dating back to the aftermath of the Great Fire of London. The majority of surviving housing built before 1914 is of this type, and consequently it dominates inner residential areas. In the twentieth century the process of suburbanisation led to a spread of semi-detached and detached housing. In the aftermath of the second world war, public housing was dramatically expanded to create a large number of council estates, although the majority of these have since been purchased by their tenants. Although many British people live in flats, it is commonly argued that they are less comfortable with this form of living than their European counterparts. This is not the case in Scotland, where many more people live in this type of housing.

There is a wealth of historic country houses and stately homes in rural areas of the UK. However the majority of these are now put to other uses than private living accommodation.

Demographic changes (see below) are putting great pressure on the housing market, especially in London and the South East.


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Living arrangements
Historically most people in the United Kingdom lived either in conjugal extended families or nuclear families. This reflected an economic landscape where the general populace tended to have less spending power, meaning that it was more practical to stick together rather than go their individual ways. This pattern also reflected gender roles. Men were expected to go out to work and women were expected to stay at home and look after the families.

In the 20th century the emancipation of women, the greater freedoms enjoyed by both men and women in the years following the Second World War, greater affluence and easier divorce have changed gender roles and living arrangements significantly. The general trend is a rise in single people living alone, the virtual extinction of the extended family (outside certain ethnic minority communities), and the nuclear family reducing in prominence.

From the 1990s, the break up of the traditional family unit, when combined with a low interest rate environment and other demographic changes, has created great pressure on the housing market, in particular regarding the accommodation of key workers such as nurses, other emergency service workers and teachers, who are priced out of most housing, especially in the South East.

Some research indicates that in the 21st century young people are tending to continue to live in the parental home for much longer than their predecessors[6][7]. The high cost of living, combined with rising cost of accommodation, further education and higher education means that many young people cannot afford to live independent lives from their families.

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Sport
Main article: Sport in the United Kingdom
The national sport of the UK is football, and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world. The home nations all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most notably the Scottish Premier League, the FA Cup and the FA Premier League. The first ever international football match was between Scotland and England in 1872. The match ended goalless.

Other famous British sporting events include the Wimbledon tennis championships, the Grand National, the London Marathon, the ashes series of cricket matches and the boat race between Oxford and Cambridge universities.

A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including: Football (soccer), squash, golf, boxing, rugby (rugby union and rugby league), cricket, snooker, billiards, badminton and curling.

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National costume

The kilt is a traditional Scottish garmentThere is no specifically British national costume. Even individually, England, Wales and Northern Ireland have only vestiges of a national costume; Scotland has the kilt and Tam o'shanter. In England certain military uniforms such as the Beefeater or the Queen's Guard are considered by tourists to be symbolic of Englishness, however they are not official national costumes. Morris dancers or the costumes for the traditional English may dance are cited by some as examples of traditional English costume.

This is in large part due to the critical role that British sensibilities have played in world clothing since the eighteenth century. Particularly during the Victorian era, British fashions defined acceptable dress for men of business. Key figures such as Beau Brummell, the future Edward VII and Edward VIII created the modern suit and cemented its dominance. As such, it could be argued that the national costume of the British male is a three piece suit, tie and bowler hat- an image regularly used by cartoonists as a caricature of Britishness.

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Naming convention
The naming convention in most of the United Kingdom is for everyone to have a given name, usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex, followed by a parent's family name. This naming convention has remained much the same since the 15th century in England although patronymic naming remained in some of the further reaches of the other home nations until much later. Since the 19th century middle names have become very common and are often taken from the family name of an ancestor.

Traditionally given names were largely taken from the Bible however in the Gothic Revival of the Victorian era Anglo Saxon and mythical names became commonplace. Since the middle of the 20th century however given names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base.

http://www.bellaonline.com/Site/chineseculture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_culture#Ethnic_groups_and_regionalisms
http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/cultural/

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